Gulf countries, Iran, Iraq and Yemen

The EU has cooperation agreements with the Gulf Cooperation Council (a regional organisation grouping Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates) and with Yemen, and a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with Iraq. The EU has no formal agreement with Iran and there is no EU Delegation in Tehran. EU-Iran relations are currently based on the preservation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA, or Iran nuclear agreement), signed in Vienna in July 2015.

Legal basis

1. Title V (external action) of the Treaty on European Union;
2. Articles 206-207 (trade) and 216-219 (international agreements) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

The GCC was established in May 1981. Today, the group – still comprising the original members, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) – serves as the main channel for the EU’s relations with the six countries. On a number of occasions, the EU and the GCC have taken joint positions on problems in the Middle East.

The oil-rich Gulf countries are undergoing considerable socio-economic and political changes, although the progress of reform is uneven. The effect of the Arab uprisings on the monarchies of the Gulf has been subdued by preventive policies – subsidies and an expansion of public-sector employment – and by repressive measures, notably in Bahrain and in Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province. The GCC countries have maintained active roles in Middle Eastern diplomacy, sometimes in rivalry with each other. This contributed to the 2017-2021 diplomatic crisis between Qatar and some of the other GCC countries, which accused Qatar of supporting terrorist and sectarian groups (including the Muslim Brotherhood), financing groups associated with Iran, infringing its neighbours’ sovereignty and instigating political dissent in neighbouring countries.

While the EU hopes to develop its political relations in the region, including through human rights dialogues, EU-GCC relations have largely been defined by economic and trade ties. Trade volumes between the two sides have grown steadily over the years, with the EU registering a significant trade surplus.

The EU and the GCC signed a Cooperation Agreement in 1988. The agreement aims to strengthen stability in a region of strategic importance, facilitate political and economic relations, broaden economic and technical cooperation, and deepen cooperation on energy, industry, trade and services, agriculture, fisheries, investment, science, technology and the environment. The agreement provides for annual joint councils/ministerial meetings, and for joint cooperation committees at the level of senior officials. It makes no provision for a parliamentary body. In April 2016, the EU-GCC Joint Cooperation Committee agreed to establish a more structured informal dialogue on trade and investment. This was followed in July 2016 by an EU-GCC joint council and ministerial meeting. The diplomatic crisis that erupted in June 2017 between Qatar and the other Gulf countries prevented new meetings from being convened.

EU-GCC cooperation received a significant boost in 2022. During the EU-GCC Joint Ministerial Meeting of 21 February 2022 in Brussels, a strong emphasis was placed on the importance of strengthening the EU-GCC partnership. At the meeting, Ministers endorsed a Joint Cooperation Programme for the 2022-2027 period, outlining concrete joint activities in a wide range of areas, including trade and investment, energy, climate change, education, counterterrorism and humanitarian aid.

The Ministers’ commitment was further reinforced in May of the same year by the joint communication of the Commission and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on a strategic partnership with the Gulf, proposing a comprehensive framework for expanding ties with GCC states. The communication, endorsed by the Council conclusions of 20 June 2022, explicitly acknowledges the direct consequences of the Gulf region’s security and stability for the EU, while emphasising the potential benefits of a stronger and more strategic partnership with the GCC and its member states.

The EU-GCC partnership has since maintained a positive momentum. On 1 June 2023, the EU appointed its first Special Representative for the Gulf region (Luigi Di Maio) to further develop a stronger, comprehensive and more strategic EU partnership with the countries in the Gulf region.

On 10 October 2023 – shortly after the outbreak of hostilities between Israel and Hamas in Gaza, triggered by a Hamas terrorist attack against Israel on 7 October – the 27th EU-GCC Joint Council was held in Muscat. The meeting produced very positive outcomes, such as: i) agreement on the establishment of a structured EU-GCC Security Dialogue; ii) agreement to co-organise a High Level Security Forum on Regional Security and Cooperation; and iii) agreement on cooperation in humanitarian affairs. The first-ever EU-GCC Security Dialogue took place on 24 January 2024 in Riyadh, shortly followed by a High Level Forum on Regional Security and Cooperation in Luxembourg on 22 April.

In terms of economic relations, negotiations on a free trade agreement were started in 1990 but have been stalled since 2008, with the question of export duties remaining a source of disagreement. A trade and investment dialogue was initiated in 2017. Since 1 January 2007, funds from the Partnership Instrument (as from its predecessor, the instrument for cooperation with industrialised and other high-income countries and territories) have been available to finance measures for implementing the EU-GCC Cooperation Agreement. The GCC countries also benefit from the Erasmus Mundus programme.

The first EU-GCC Cooperation Council Summit, held on 16 October 2024, showed that the relations between the two regions are of high strategic importance for both sides. The Summit marked a pivotal milestone by establishing, through its joint statement, a new framework for enhanced cooperation, with a shared commitment to strengthening ties in trade, investment, people-to-people contacts, and energy and connectivity. The discussions highlighted the significant untapped potential in EU-GCC economic relations, prompting agreement to advance negotiations for a free trade agreement and explore all avenues to boost economic cooperation. In addition, the EU and GCC countries emphasised the need for increased collaboration in areas such as youth, education, sport, mobility and culture to foster closer people-to-people connections.

Role of the European Parliament

Parliament adopted a resolution on EU relations with the GCC countries on 24 March 2011, calling for a strategic partnership with the GCC and its member states. This position was most recently reiterated in Parliament’s resolution of 28 February 2024 on the implementation of the common foreign and security policy – annual report 2023.

Parliament’s Delegation for relations with the Arab Peninsula holds regular inter-parliamentary meetings with the consultative councils in the region and monitors the development of relations between the EU and the GCC.

In recent years, Parliament has adopted resolutions expressing specific concerns about the human rights situation in some GCC countries, including those of 8 July 2021, of 14 February 2019 and of 31 May 2018 on Saudi Arabia, of 16 September 2021 on the United Arab Emirates and of 11 March 2021, of 7 July 2016, of 4 February 2016, of 9 July 2015 and of 12 March 2015 on Bahrain, and the return to the practice of capital punishment in Kuwait and Bahrain. Following the murder of journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Parliament adopted a resolution condemning the murder, calling for an international, independent and impartial investigation into his disappearance and extrajudicial killing, and urging the Saudi authorities to immediately and unconditionally release all human rights defenders.

Parliament has called several times for an EU arms embargo against Saudi Arabia, most recently in its resolution of 14 November 2018, given the serious allegations of breaches of international humanitarian law by Saudi Arabia in Yemen.

Parliament’s Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought for 2015 was awarded to Saudi blogger Raif Badawi.

Yemen

EU-Yemen relations are based on the 1997 Cooperation Agreement, covering trade, development cooperation, culture, communications and information, the environment and management of natural resources, and political dialogue. In March 2015, an international military coalition led by Saudi Arabia launched a campaign against rebels who had ousted the incumbent president. The EU supports the mediation conducted by the UN with a view to finding a political solution to the conflict.

On 12 December 2022, the Council adopted conclusions on Yemen, reaffirming its commitment to the unity, sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Yemen, and its full support to the UN peace efforts and to UN Special Envoy Hans Grundberg in his mediation efforts. The EU has urged the Houthis to abandon maximalist positions and engage constructively with UN Special Envoy Grundberg. The Council also stressed the utmost importance of reinstating and further extending the truce.

Since the beginning of the war in 2015, the EU has contributed over EUR 1.4 billion to respond to the crisis in Yemen. This includes EUR 998 million in humanitarian aid and EUR 487 million in development assistance.

In 2023, the EU allocated EUR 145.1 million in humanitarian aid for those affected by the conflict in Yemen. EU humanitarian aid focuses on assisting the most vulnerable people in the country – those directly affected by the conflict or displaced, as well as households impacted by the food insecurity and health crises. This includes food, healthcare, education, water and shelter. It also covers improved hygiene services to displaced populations and conflict-affected areas as well as areas with high food insecurity and malnutrition.

In 2023, the EU allocated EUR 55 million in development aid, earmarked for food security and livelihood support, addressing both urgent food security needs, as well as long-term development and self-reliance.

The EU Delegation to the Republic of Yemen is currently operating from Amman, Jordan.

Role of the European Parliament

Parliament adopted a resolution on Yemen on 9 July 2015 and again on 25 February 2016, 15 June 2017, 30 November 2017, 4 October 2018 and 11 February 2021 expressing serious concern about the alarming humanitarian and security situation and calling for the effective implementation of a ceasefire. On 13 September 2017, Parliament adopted a resolution on arms exports, which deplored the fact that military technology exported by Member States was being used in the conflict in Yemen.

Parliament’s Delegation for relations with the Arab Peninsula is responsible for relations with Yemen and for monitoring the situation in the country.

Iraq

The EU remains committed to Iraq, as the country’s economic recovery and the consolidation of its democracy are key to promoting stability not only in Iraq, but also in the wider region and in Europe.

The EU has been a key provider of assistance to Iraq since the 2003 war. A Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) was signed between the EU and Iraq in May 2012. It provides a framework for dialogue and cooperation in a number of areas, including political issues, counterterrorism, trade, human rights, health, education and the environment. Under the PCA, the first ever EU-Iraq Cooperation Council meeting was held in January 2014. A second meeting took place on 18 October 2016 and the third Cooperation Council took place in March 2023, in Brussels. For the 2014-2020 period, the Commission pledged to provide Iraq with EUR 75 million for cooperation in the areas of human rights and the rule of law, education and sustainable energy.

The EU adopted a new strategy for Iraq in January 2018. The strategy focuses on delivering continued EU humanitarian aid to the Iraqi people and facilitating the stabilisation of areas liberated from the Islamic State (IS) group, with 3 million displaced Iraqis still unable to return home. It also seeks to address the reform, reconstruction and reconciliation efforts in the longer term that Iraq needs to pursue in order to consolidate peace and build a united, democratic country in which all citizens can fully enjoy their rights in greater prosperity.

In line with the EU Strategy on Iraq and the PCA, the Commission’s Multiannual Indicative Programme (MIP) for 2021-2027 aims to create the conditions and prospects for all Iraqis, and in particular young people, to thrive in a more prosperous, shock-resilient and democratic Iraq. The MIP 2021-2027 proposes the following three priority areas: 1. green job creation and economic diversification; 2. human development and social contract; and 3. digital participatory governance and democracy.

The EU also offers support for security in Iraq. In response to a request from the Iraqi authorities, a common security and defence policy mission to support civilian security sector reform – EUAM Iraq – was established by the Council in October 2017. The EUAM provides guidance and expertise on civilian security sector reform to Iraqi authorities. This assistance aims to facilitate the coherent implementation of the Iraqi national security strategy.

Role of the European Parliament

In recent years, Parliament has adopted various resolutions on the situation in Iraq, including on the situation of women’s rights and the recent proposal to amend the Personal Status Law, on the offensive by IS, on gender violence, on the persecution of minorities, on the situation in northern Iraq/Mosul, on mass graves, on education for children in emergency situations, on the destruction of cultural sites by IS and on arms exports.

Parliament’s Delegation for relations with Iraq holds inter-parliamentary meetings (IPM) with Iraq’s Council of Representatives. The last IPM took place in 2023 in Baghdad. The next IPM is due to be held in Brussels on 14 May 2025.

Parliament’s Sakharov Prize for 2016 was awarded to Nadia Murad Basee Taha and Lamiya Aji Bashar, who are survivors of sexual enslavement by IS in Iraq and have become spokespersons for women afflicted by IS’s campaign of sexual violence. They are public advocates for the Yazidi community in Iraq, a religious minority that has been subjected to a genocidal campaign by IS militants.

Iran

EU relations with Iran are a challenge, particularly with Iran’s support for Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and have deteriorated to the point that no EU funding is engaged in any activity beyond some very specific support for human rights defenders and humanitarian actions. Since Iran is not a member of the World Trade Organization and there is no bilateral agreement between the EU and Iran, trade between the two is subject to the EU’s general import regime. According to Eurostat, EU-Iran trade was valued at EUR 4.7 billion in 2023, a 9% decline from EUR 5.2 billion in 2022.

The main priority for the EU in its current relations with Iran is the preservation of the Iran nuclear agreement (JCPOA), signed in Vienna in July 2015. The JCPOA is a key component of the international nuclear non-proliferation system. It gives power to the UN nuclear watchdog, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which carries out the strictest inspections in the history of nuclear non-proliferation. The IAEA assumes full responsibility for monitoring whether Iran continues to adhere to the JCPOA’s mandated obligations. In return for Iran’s commitments, the JCPOA reintegrates Iran into the global system.

The withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA in 2018 and its adoption of a policy of maximum pressure led Iran to scale down its commitments under the agreement, which establishes a comprehensive and strict system of inspections and monitoring to be carried out by the IAEA. The EU, together with the E3 (Germany, France and the UK), Russia and China, are working to preserve the JCPOA, and thus Iran’s commitments.

In line with the JCPOA, the Iran arms embargo expired in October 2020. While the EU expressed reservations about its expiry, it rejected the US threat to reinstate all UN sanctions (‘snapback’). The EU maintains its own arms embargo, not related to the JCPOA and linked to human rights violations, hostile activities against the EU and the launching of ballistic and cruise missiles. The EU’s instrument to facilitate trade with Iran, INSTEX, was not able to compensate for the harsh impact of US sanctions, which was further exacerbated by the COVID-19 outbreak, strengthening hardliners. The EU has provided humanitarian aid to the most vulnerable groups in Iran, bringing the overall support to Iran since 2016 to over EUR 90 million.

The dire economic situation in Iran and the lack of dividends emanating from the JCPOA had an impact on the presidential election that took place in June 2021, won by hardliner Ebrahim Raisi, a conservative cleric and former head of the judiciary. The current cabinet includes a number of ministers targeted by international sanctions.

Legislative elections to the Majles (the Council of Representatives) were held in Iran in March 2024 for the first round, and in May 2024 for the second round.

The JCPOA negotiations in Vienna were interrupted following the June 2021 presidential election. In July 2021, the IAEA warned that Tehran intended to use uranium enriched up to 20% U-235 in manufacturing fuel for the Tehran Research Reactor. The EU has remained fully committed to the JCPOA and still plays an important role in connecting all parties and encouraging them to comply with the agreement.

In April 2021, in response to the EU’s assertive position on human rights, Iran announced the suspension of all human rights talks and cooperation with the EU in the areas of terrorism, drugs and refugees. In January 2022, an Iranian court sentenced Iranian human rights defender Narges Mohammadi to eight years in prison with 70 lashes. In January 2022, following this case, the EU called on Iran to comply with international law. The death in custody of Mahsa Amini in September 2022 further hindered bilateral contacts.

Negotiations in Vienna slowed down after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 and Iran’s economic and military support to Moscow. Iran’s involvement in the war between Hamas and Israel in the Gaza Strip since October 2023 and Tehran’s support for proxy groups such as Hezbollah and the Houthis have further complicated negotiations. An IAEA report from November 2023 indicated that Iran had stockpiled enough uranium for three atomic bombs. In 2024, the IAEA focused on increasing the monitoring and oversight of Iran’s nuclear programme.

In February 2024, IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi stated that Iran was continuing to enrich uranium well beyond the needs for commercial nuclear use. While the pace of uranium enrichment has slowed slightly since December 2023, Iran was still enriching uranium in 2024 at an elevated rate of around seven kilograms per month to 60% purity. Concerns grew in 2024 over Iran’s uranium enrichment and potential nuclear capabilities. In February 2024, the head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, Mohammad Eslami, recognised that Iran had started building a new nuclear research reactor in Isfahan, which is already home to three reactors.

Role of the European Parliament

Parliament’s Delegation for relations with Iran (D-IR) was established in 2004 with a view to having a direct channel with the Majles. Since 2015, D-IR has been involved in playing a crucial role in the JCPOA and in bringing the EU and Iran together. Seven inter-parliamentary meetings have taken place since 2005, the last of which was held in Brussels in September 2018.

In spite of Parliament’s discontinued relations with Iran, it has provided a platform for engagement with Iranian civil society, the Iranian diaspora and Iranian human rights defenders. Parliament has always supported the EU’s commitment to a diplomatic solution to Iran’s nuclear programme. While being a strong advocate of the JCPOA, Parliament actively monitors the situation regarding political opponents, religious minorities, human rights defenders, women and the LGBTIQA+ community in Iran. Moreover, Parliament firmly opposes capital punishment, torture, arbitrary trials, police brutality and the detention of political opponents.

Recent relevant actions and resolutions of the European Parliament on Iran:

1. February 2024: Parliament adopted a resolution on the increased number of executions in Iran, in particular the case of Mohammad Ghobadlou, supporting the campaign to abolish the death penalty launched by imprisoned Nobel Peace Prize winner Narges Mohammadi and other female political prisoners.
2. November 2023: Parliament adopted a resolution on the attacks against women and women’s rights defenders in Iran, and Iran’s arbitrary detention of EU nationals.
3. March 2023: Parliament adopted a resolution on the poisoning of hundreds of schoolgirls, reiterating its condemnation of the regime’s anti-women and anti-girls policies and demanding to abolish all systemic discrimination.
4. October 2022: Parliament adopted a resolution strongly regretting the death of Mahsa Jina Amini, a young Kurdish woman who died in police custody after being arrested for allegedly not wearing her hijab correctly. Riots and protests took place across the country, resulting in at least 50 reported deaths and the arrest of hundreds of protesters.
5. February 2022: Parliament adopted a resolution on the death penalty in Iran, reiterating the EU’s strong opposition to the death penalty in all circumstances and calling on the Government of Iran to introduce an immediate moratorium on the use of the death penalty.
6. April 2024: Parliament adopted a resolution on Iran’s unprecedented attack against Israel, the need for de-escalation and an EU response, deploring Iran’s attack on Israel and the previous attack on the Iranian consulate in Damascus, Syria. Parliament expressed deep concern about the threats to the Middle East’s regional stability, reiterating its full support for the security of the State of Israel and its citizens. Parliament called on all parties to avoid any further escalation and to show maximum restraint, expressing deep concerns over the destabilising role that the Iranian regime and its proxies play in the Middle East. Parliament welcomed the EU’s decision to expand its current sanctions regime against Iran, including by sanctioning the country’s supply and production of unmanned drones and missiles to Russia and the wider Middle East.
7. January 2025: in its resolution on the systematic repression of human rights in Iran, notably the cases of Pakhshan Azizi and Wrisha Moradi, and the taking of EU citizens as hostages, Parliament once again denounced the Iranian regime’s unrestrained repression of human rights, condemned the death sentence against Pakhshan Azizi and Wrisha Moradi, and demanded the immediate and unconditional release of all unjustly imprisoned human rights defenders and political prisoners.

 

Simona-Daniela Moroianu / Daniele Cardella

04-2025