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Biochemistry an overview

1. Living organisms are composed of biomolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. 2. Within cells, these biomolecules and inorganic elements confer the property of life and allow the cell to obtain materials, produce enzymes, and undergo chemical reactions to sustain itself. 3. Biochemistry studies the biomolecules, elements, and chemical reactions within living things to understand functions at the molecular level, from single-celled to multicellular organisms.

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Biochemistry ‒ An Overview R. C. Gupta M.D. (Biochemistry) Jaipur, India
Living organisms are made up of chemical elements organized into bio-molecules Important bio-molecules include nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc These are made up of C, H, O and N with small amounts of some other elements
Several inorganic elements are also present in living organisms By themselves, the bio-molecules and the inorganic elements are non-living But when they come together in a cell, they confer the property of ‘life’ to the cell
Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms It obtains raw materials required for sustaining itself from its environment From raw materials, it produces the biological catalysts (enzymes) that catalyse biochemical reactions in the cell
With the help of enzymes, the cell oxidizes the bio-molecules to extract energy It can convert raw materials into complex molecules and supra-molecular assemblies
Chemical events occurring in the cell keep it in a dynamic steady state, even in a continually changing environment And finally, the cell has the remarkable ability to reproduce itself
Biochemistry encompasses the study of: Bio-molecules and elements essential for life The chemical reactions they undergo to subserve various functions of the organism
Unicellular organisms, e.g. bacteria, are made up of a single cell having a simple architecture Multicellular organisms have a highly organized cellular architecture
Multicellular Unicellular
An adult human being has nearly 1014 cells These cells are of different types having different shapes, sizes and functions
The cells are organized into tissues and tissues into organs This differentiation gives us the advantage of division of labour But it also poses the problem of cell-cell communication and co-ordination
A simple event like removing our hand on touching a hot object involves a series of reactions
These reactions occur in different types of cells involving a number of ions and molecules Biochemistry seeks to explain such complex biological phenomena at the molecular level
The structural organization of cells differs from organism to organism But there is a remarkable degree of unity in this diversity The bio-molecules present in different types of cells are similar
The information molecules, ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid, are similar They are made up of the same nucleotides The genetic code is the same
The proteins are made up of the same twenty amino acids The biological catalysts are similar The currency of energy is the same The metabolic pathways are similar
Due to this similarity, information obtained in one organism can be extrapolated to others Much of the information about human biochemistry has been obtained from experiments in simple organisms like bacteria
The scope of biochemistry is very wide It covers plants, animals, microbes, industry etc Human biochemistry concerns the bio- chemistry of human health and disease
Study of human biochemistry covers: • Chemistry of amino acids and proteins • Enzymes • Chemistry of carbohydrates and lipids • Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids and proteins • Bio-energetics and oxidative phosphorylation • Molecular biology Continued …
• Vitamins and minerals • Hormones • Nutrition and dietetics • Maintenance of pH, water and electrolyte balance • Cancer • Immunochemistry • Xenobiotics
Amino acids are the building blocks for synthesis of proteins Proteins form the structural framework of tissues and perform a variety of other functions in the form of enzymes, hormones, receptors, antibodies etc Chemistry of amino acids and proteins
Enzymes are the universal catalysts of the living world No reaction in living organisms can occur at a significant rate without enzymes Enzymes
With a few exceptions, all enzymes are proteins They have unique three-dimensional structures suited to their catalytic functions
Enzymes also play a crucial role in metabolic regulation One (or a few) key enzyme(s) regulate a metabolic pathway Rates of reactions are regulated by altering the concentration or catalytic activity of the key enzyme(s)
Many diseases can be diagnosed by measuring the levels of some enzymes in biological fluids e.g. plasma Many inhibitors of enzymes are used as drugs Some enzymes themselves are used as drugs
Carbohydrates and lipids are used mainly as sources of energy Carbohydrates constitute the largest component of our daily diet Chemistry of carbohydrates and lipids
Lipids constitute the major storage form of energy Some carbohydrates and lipids perform structural roles as well
The chemical reactions the biomolecules undergo in the body constitute metabolism The process begins with the digestion of complex biomolecules This is followed by absorption of the products of digestion Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids and proteins
The metabolic processes include: Anabolism i.e. synthesis of large molecules from small precursors Catabolism i.e. breakdown of large molecules
Anabolism and catabolism occur by a series of reactions Each reaction series constitutes a metabolic pathway There are a number of pathways for metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
While studying metabolic pathways, we should look at their: • Tissue distribution • Intracellular location • Reactions • Energetics • Regulation • Importance • Disorders
Metabolic disorders occur due to a block in some reaction of the pathway The block occurs owing to a mutated, dysfunctional enzyme
Energy is released during oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids It is captured by oxidative phosphorylation It is utilized in anabolic pathways and for muscle contraction, active transport etc Bio-energetics and oxidative phosphorylation
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the universal currency of energy ATP is formed during energy-yielding (exergonic) reactions ATP is utilized in energy-consuming (endergonic) activities
Molecular biology is the study of nucleic acids and their building blocks Nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) Their building blocks are nucleotides Molecular biology
DNA and RNA are known as information molecules Genetic information is present in DNA in the form of genes A gene possesses coded information about amino acid sequence of a protein
An RNA transcript of gene carries information from DNA to the ribosomes Using this information, the protein is synthesized on the ribosome
During cell division, DNA of the cell is exactly replicated The daughter cells acquire the genetic information present in the parent cell
Study of molecular biology includes processes like: Replication (synthesis of DNA) Transcription (synthesis of RNA) Translation (synthesis of proteins) Recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology has led to a revolution in molecular biology Its study comprises the study of its tools, techniques and applications Recombinant DNA technology is finding applications in all life sciences
Vitamins are a group of chemically diverse organic compounds required in minute quantities but essential for life Many vitamins act as coenzymes, essential for the activity of a number of enzymes Vitamins
Some vitamins are required for growth, differentiation, vision etc Deficient intake of most, and excessive intake of some, vitamins produces specific diseases
Study of vitamins covers their: • Chemistry • Functions • Requirements • Dietary sources • Diseases resulting from deficient or excessive intake
A number of minerals are essential for human beings Some are required in relatively large quantities (macronutrients) Others are required in minute quantities (micronutrients) Minerals
Minerals are required for: • Formation of bones (Ca and P) • Nerve conduction (Na and K) • Formation of haemoglobin (Fe) • Activity of enzymes (Cu, Zn, Se etc)
Study of minerals covers their: • Functions • Requirements • Dietary sources • Diseases resulting from deficient or excessive intake
Hormones are mobile signal molecules They carry signals from one organ, tissue or cell to another They are required for intercellular communication and co-ordination Hormones
Hormones help the organism to respond to any change in internal or external environment in a coordinated manner Small changes in the concentrations of hormones produce profound physio- logical and biochemical effects
Under- or over-production of hormones produces serious disorders Diagnosis of these disorders usually requires biochemical measurement of hormone concentrations in blood
Water constitutes nearly two-thirds of the body weight in an adult man Water is the universal solvent of the living world It is the medium in which all biochemical reactions occur Maintenance of pH, water and electrolyte balance
Small changes in water content, distri- bution of electrolytes and pH of body fluids can derange normal functioning Such changes can occur in a variety of diseases Correction of the imbalance requires a sound understanding of normal regulatory mechanisms
We obtain all the nutrients we require, viz. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals, from food Malnutrition (under- and over-nutrition) is common all over the world Nutrition and dietetics
Diseases resulting from under-nutrition afflict large sections of poor Over-nutrition is the bane of the rich Ignorance contributes significantly to both
Correction of under-nutrition and over- nutrition requires a sound knowledge of principles of nutrition and dietetics Dietary advice is required in some non- nutritional diseases also
Cancer (malignancy) has emerged as a leading cause of death worldwide A number of physical, chemical and bio- logical agents are known to cause cancer Cancer
Molecular mechanisms that transform a healthy cell into a cancer cell have eluded us for a long time Advances in molecular biology are now revealing the interplay of anti-oncogenes, proto-oncogenes and onco-genes This complex interplay can transform a normal cell into a cancer cell
We are exposed to a vast range of foreign antigens that can cause disease To protect us against these antigens, we have a very competent immune system The immune system comprises innate immunity and adaptive immunity Immunochemistry
A number of molecules are involved in recognition and inactivation of antigens Immunochemistry is the study of mole- cules of immune recognition and the mechanisms by which the foreign antigens are dealt with
Apart from antigens, we are exposed to a variety of foreign chemicals, known as xenobiotics, that can cause toxicity Through biochemistry, we understand the mechanisms by which the xenobiotics are detoxified and excreted Xenobiotics
Study of human biochemistry, thus, gives us insights into the molecular basis of complex biological phenomena Biochemistry is, therefore, described as the chemical language of life
This chemical language helps us: • In understanding the normal functioning of the body at molecular level • In unraveling the molecular basis of diseases • In diagnosing diseases by laboratory investigations • In treatment by providing enzymes, enzyme inhibitors and gene therapy
Biochemistry an overview