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Politics of research

This document discusses ethics in research. It defines ethics and describes common approaches like deontological, relativist, and utilitarian. Major ethical concerns for researchers include their relationship with society, professional issues like fraud, and treatment of research participants. Guidelines like informed consent, avoiding deception and harm, and allowing withdrawal are discussed. Political and economic influences on research are also covered, as well as the role of Institutional Review Boards in reviewing research proposals.

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ETHICS POLITICS OF RESEARCH BY VISHNU ACHUTHA M ENON DEPARTM ENT OF M EDIA AND COM M UNICATION CUTN
ETHICSETHICS What are ethics? What are common ethical issues that seem to surface in research? When should ethical issues be considered?
ETHICS Ethics: principles for guiding decision making and reconciling conflicting values  People may disagree on ‘ethics’ because it is basedPeople may disagree on ‘ethics’ because it is based on people's personal value systemson people's personal value systems  What one person considers to be good or right mayWhat one person considers to be good or right may be considered bad or wrong by another personbe considered bad or wrong by another person
MAJOR APPROACHES TO ETHICS Deontological Approach  This approach states that we should identify and use a Universal code when making ethical decisions. An action is either ethical or not ethical, without exception.
Ethical skepticism  This is the relativist viewpoint, stating that ethical standards are not universal but are relative to one's particular culture and time.
Utilitarianism  This is a very practical viewpoint, stating that decisions about the ethics of a study should depend on the balance of the consequences and benefits for the research participants and the larger society.
The utilitarian approach is used by most people in academia (such as Institutional Review Boards). "Do the potential benefits outweigh the risks associated with this research?"
ETHICAL CONCERNS TO THE RESEARCH COMMUNITY 1. The relationship between society and science.  Many research ideas come from areas considered important in society.Many research ideas come from areas considered important in society.  The federal government and other funding agencies use grants toThe federal government and other funding agencies use grants to affect the areas researchers choose to examine.affect the areas researchers choose to examine.
2. Professional issues. The primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity byThe primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity by scientists. Cheating or lying arescientists. Cheating or lying are nevernever defensible.defensible. Two related issues areTwo related issues are partial publicatiopartial publication(publishing severaln(publishing several articles from the data collected in one large study) andarticles from the data collected in one large study) and duplicate publicationduplicate publication (publishing the same results in more than(publishing the same results in more than one publication).one publication). Partial publicationPartial publication is usually not unethical for large researchis usually not unethical for large research studies where partial reports of data are likely.studies where partial reports of data are likely. Duplicate publicationDuplicate publication is sometimes acceptable when the resultsis sometimes acceptable when the results are being reported to different audiences in publicationsare being reported to different audiences in publications tailored to those particular audiences.tailored to those particular audiences.
3. Treatment of research participants.  This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue.This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue.  It involves insuring that research participants are not harmed physically orIt involves insuring that research participants are not harmed physically or psychologically.psychologically.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH WITH HUMANS One set of guidelines specifically developed to guide research conducted by educational researchers is the AERA Guidelines. The AERA is the largest professional association in the field of education, and is also known as the American Educational Research Association.
INFORMED CONSENT This is the process of providing the research participants with information enables them to make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate in the research study. State the purpose of the research and describe the procedures to be followed. Describe any potential risks or discomforts the participant may encounter. Describe any potential benefits from participation. Describe extant to which results will be kept confidential. Give a list of names the participants may contact with any questions they have.   State that participant is voluntary and that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time.
INFORMED CONSENT WITH MINORS AS RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Consent must be obtained from parents or guardians. Assent must also be obtained from minors who are old enough or have enough intellectual capacity to say they are willing to participate.
DECEPTION Providing false information to the participant about the nature and/or purpose of the study  It is discouraged by the AERA, but not disallowed in all cases.It is discouraged by the AERA, but not disallowed in all cases.  Sometimes deception is required in order to conduct a valid research study. TheSometimes deception is required in order to conduct a valid research study. The researcher must justify the use of deception.researcher must justify the use of deception. If deception is used the following are very important:If deception is used the following are very important:  Debriefing is an interview with the research participant providing an opportunity for theDebriefing is an interview with the research participant providing an opportunity for the experimenter to reveal deceptive aspects of the study and for the participant to have anyexperimenter to reveal deceptive aspects of the study and for the participant to have any questions about the study answered.questions about the study answered.  Dehoaxing:Dehoaxing: informing the participant about deceptive aspects of the research studyinforming the participant about deceptive aspects of the research study  Desensitizing:Desensitizing: eliminating any stress or other undesirable feelings the study may haveeliminating any stress or other undesirable feelings the study may have createdcreated
FREEDOM TO WITHDRAW Participants must be informed that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. If you have a power relationship with the participants you must be extra careful to make sure that they really do feel free to withdraw.
PROTECTION FROM MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HARM This is the most fundamental ethical issue confronting the researcher. Educational research generally poses minimal risk to participants.
ECONOMIC REGULATION OFECONOMIC REGULATION OF RESEARCHRESEARCH Economic regulation is the issue of who sponsors your research as well as how much money you get. It's the ethical duty of a researcher to get their results published somewhere. This is called dissemination of your research, and it requires that you find the most appropriate and scholarly outlet that you can.
POLITICAL REGULATION OF RESEARCH Historically, governments have had to put serious restrictions on researchers. In fact, the origin of codes of research ethics can be traced to the NUREMBERG CODE, a list of rules established by a military tribunal on Nazi war crimes during World War II.  The principles outlined in the Nuremberg Code include:  Voluntary consentVoluntary consent  Avoidance of unnecessary sufferingAvoidance of unnecessary suffering  Avoidance of accidental death or disabilityAvoidance of accidental death or disability  Termination of research if harm is likelyTermination of research if harm is likely  Experiments should be conducted by highly qualified peopleExperiments should be conducted by highly qualified people  Results should be for the good of society and unattainable by anyResults should be for the good of society and unattainable by any other means other means 
The Nuremberg Code was followed by the 1948 U.N. Declaration of Human Rights and the 1964 Helsinki accord. In 1971 (and revised in 1981), the U.S. government initiated guidelines for all federally funded research. Most federal agencies followed the lead of HEW (now HHS) because this list of rules could be applied generically to both medical and nonmedical research. The HEW GUIDELINES were: Subjects should be given a fair explanation of the purpose and procedures of the researchSubjects should be given a fair explanation of the purpose and procedures of the research Subjects should be given a description of any reasonable risks or discomforts expectedSubjects should be given a description of any reasonable risks or discomforts expected Subjects should be told of any possible benefits to be obtained by participatingSubjects should be told of any possible benefits to be obtained by participating Researchers should disclose any alternative procedures that might be advantageous to theResearchers should disclose any alternative procedures that might be advantageous to the subjectsubject Researchers should offer to answer any questions subjects may have during the researchResearchers should offer to answer any questions subjects may have during the research Subjects should be told they are free to withdraw and discontinue participation at any timeSubjects should be told they are free to withdraw and discontinue participation at any time
One of the outcomes of the HEW guidelines was the establishment of INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARDS (IRBs) at colleges and universities across America. At first, IRBs were seen as a hindrance on academic freedom by faculty researchers, but they came to be accepted, especially after 1981 when the revised HHS guidelines exempted most social science and criminal justice research from full review by creating a category of "expedited" review.
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD This is a board consisting of professionals and lay people who review research proposals to insure that the researcher will adhere to ethical standards in the conduct of the research.  Researchers must submit a Research Protocol to the IRB for reviewResearchers must submit a Research Protocol to the IRB for review  Three of the most important categories of review are exempt studies, expeditedThree of the most important categories of review are exempt studies, expedited review, and full board reviewreview, and full board review  Much educational research falls in the exempt category: being exempt from certainMuch educational research falls in the exempt category: being exempt from certain requirements and full committee review because the study involves no or minimalrequirements and full committee review because the study involves no or minimal riskrisk  Studies with children, prisoners, and fetal participants are never exemptStudies with children, prisoners, and fetal participants are never exempt  Even if your study ultimately falls in the exempt category, it is still essential that youEven if your study ultimately falls in the exempt category, it is still essential that you follow the ethical guidelinesfollow the ethical guidelines
THERE ARE THREE WAYS, AND THREE WAYS ONLY, TO ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION ETHICALLY (SENESE 1997): Anonymity: Promise and keep your promises of anonymity. After identifying your sampling frame, try to forget about taking names or any other unique identifiers. Reassure people that you won't go to the media. Fill them in on what journal outlet you have planned. Confidentiality: This is what you should promise if you can't keep anonymity. In other words, use confidentiality if you can't guarantee anonymity. It requires that you guarantee that no one will be individually identifiable in any way by you, that all your tables, reports, and publications will only discuss findings in the aggregate. Informed Consent: Be honest and fair with your subjects. Tell them everything they want to know about your research. Be aware of any hidden power differentials that might be pressuring them to participate.
    CASE: TEAROOM TRADE was the name of a book published by a sociologist named Laud Humphreys in 1970 who posed as a "watchqueen" in public restrooms to observe homosexual behavior After every liaison where an old man would seduce some "chicken hawk" with money for an oral sex experience, Humphreys would jot down the license plate number of each old man's vehicle. Then, he had a friend in the police department trace the addresses. He would then visit the old men at home and pressure them into giving him an interview. The case stands as a classic example of invasion of privacy.
CASE: TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY was conducted from 1932 to 1974 and involved the withholding of penicillin from black male sharecroppers so the government could find out the long term effects of syphilis Similar experiments went on with the U.S. military involving nerve gas and nuclear radiation. The CIA also performed bizarre mind control experiments involving LSD, ESP, hypnosis, and surgery. The moral of all this is not to conduct secret testing on unsuspecting subjects.
CASE: ZIMBARDO'S PRISON SIMULATION was a study by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1972 that took Stanford University undergrads and made some of them guards and some of them prisoners in a mock underground dungeon for a planned two week stay. The experiment had to be cancelled after six days because by then, the student-guards became quite sadistic, really getting into their roles. The prisoners were also becoming quite mental. The experiment tells a story about psychological harm and informed consent, since the subjects did not know what they were getting into.    
DISCUSSION SCENARIO (S) After a field study of deviant behavior during a riot, law enforcement officials demand that the researcher identify those people who were observed looting. Rather than risk arrest as an accomplice after the fact, the researcher complies. Ethical issues?
A research questionnaire is circulated among students as part of their university registration packet. Although students are not told they must complete the questionnaire, the hope is that they will believe they must – thus ensuring a higher completion rate. Ethical Issues?