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This document is a seminar report submitted by Sanjeet Kumar on the topic of electric traction. It includes declarations by the candidate and supervisor certifying the work. The abstract provides an overview of electric traction, including its history, development factors like safety and speed, and how materials like steel improved tracks. It also notes the standardization of track gauges. The report contains sections on the introduction, components of AC locomotives, and conclusions. It is intended to partially fulfill the requirements for a BTech in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

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A SEMINAR REPORT ON ELECTRIC TRACTION SUBMITTED BY: SANJEET KUMAR REGISTRATION NO.-1308143 BRANCH:-ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY:-PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY KAPURTHALA JALANDHAR (PUNJAB)-144020
CT INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SHAHPUR – JALANDHAR CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the Seminar entitled “Electric Traction” by “Sanjeet Kumar” in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of degree of B.Tech. (Electrical & Electronics Engineering) submitted in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering at CTIT, Jalandhar is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a period from July 2016 to Sept 2016 under the supervision of Er. Rahul Sharma.The matter presented in this Seminar has not been submitted by me in any other University / Institute for the award of B.Tech Degree. SANJEET KUMAR This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my/our knowledge. (Er. Rahul Sharma) Supervisor The B.Tech Viva-voice Examination of Electric Traction held on 18 Aug 2016 and is accepted. Er. Rahul Sharma (Supervisor) Signature of HOD
ABSTRACT In this seminar report we have discussed about electric traction, whole process, working ,advantage & disadvantage and conclusion of electric traction and its reference The railway as a means of transport is a very old idea. At its beginnings, it was mainly utilised in the central European mines with different means of traction being applied. But it did not come into general use until the invention of the steam engine. Since the 18th century it has developed faster and faster until in the 21st century it has become the most efficient means of transport for medium distances thanks to the development of High Speed. The main factors that have driven the enormous development of the railway, as any other means of transport, have been, and continue to be safety, speed and economy. On top of all this, as every day passes, its environmental impact is minimum, if not zero. In the case of the railway, one of the determining factors behind its development was the type of track used, either because of its gauge or the materials used in its construction. At the start, these were made of cast iron, but they turned out to be lacking in safety as they easily broke due to their fragility. Towards the end of the 19th century steel began to be used as it was a less fragile and much stronger material. Nowadays, plate track is a key element in the development of High Speed trains making wooden sleepers a thing of the past. The rubber track mountings which are currently used to support the tracks have led to enormous reductions in vibration and noise both in the track and the rolling stock. Moreover, each country had a different track gauge due to strategic reasons of commerce and defence. Today’s global markets leave no other option but to standardise track gauges or failing that, to produce rolling stock that can be adapted to the different gauges quickly and automatically.
ACKNOWLEDMENT A journey becomes easier when we travel together. Interdependence is certainly more valuable than independence. This seminar report is a result of hard work and blessings of GOD. During this period I was guided, supported, supervised and helped by my mentor, friends, colleagues and family members. The first person I would like to thanks Er. S S Matharu (HOD EEE) For valuable guidance and critical thinking. I also wish to extend my thanks to Er. Rahul Sharma to improve the quality of this seminar report. I owe my thanks to Dr. Anoop Beri (Principal CTIT) and all the Faculty members and friends for all the necessary infrastructural and moral support. Most importantly, on personal I would like to thanks Aman chaudhary & Tarnpreet singh talwar to motivation for their kind and blessings. SANJEET KUMAR
TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page No. Candidate’s Declaration………………………………………………………………….i Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. .ii Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………...iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………iv List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..v Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………………..vi Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………......1 1.1 TRACTION SYSTEMS…………………………………………………..2 1.2 DIESEL-ELECTRIC DRIVE DRIVE…………………………………2-3 Chapter 2: SPECIAL-PURPOSE VEHICLES………………………………………...4-6 Chapter 3: SINGLE-PHASE LOW-FREQUENCYAC SYSTEM …………………..7 3.1 THREE-PHASE LOW-FREQUENCY AC SYSTEM…………………..7 3.2 COMPOSITE SYSTEM………………………………………………….8-9 Chapter 4: TRACK ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM………………………………..10 4.1 THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF AN AC LOCOMOTIVE……..11-17 CONCLUSION……………………………………………...……………18 REFERENCES………………………………………………………...…19 Copy of paper published in International Journal of Electrical Engineering & International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research.
LIST OF FIGURES Fig No. Figure Description Page No. Fig.1 The above picture shows a diesel train engine…………………………………………1 Fig.2 Battery-electric Drive………………………………………………………..3 Fig.3 Electric vehicles for disabled people in Årdalstangen, Norway…………….4 Fig.4 Block Diagram of an AC Locomotive………………………………………10 Fig.5 electric locomotive…………………………………………………………...11 Fig.6 overhead contact wire……………………………………………..…………12 Fig.7 pantograph……………………………………………………………………12 Fig.8 circuit breaker……………………………………………………………..….13 Fig.9 online tap changer…………………………………………………………….13 Fig.10 Transformer……………………………………………………………..……14 Fig.11 Rectifier………………………………………………………..…………….15 Fig.12 smoothing choke……………………………………………………..……...15 Fig.13 dc traction motor…………………………………………………………….16
ABBREVIATIONS DC Direct current AC Alternating current OH Overhead Hz Hertz V Microwave Power Transmission Km Kilo meter
Electrical Traction CHAPTER-1 Introduction electric traction is meant locomotion in which the driving (or tractive) force is obtained from electric motors. It is used in electric trains, tramcars, trolley buses and diesel- electric vehicles etc. Electric traction has many advantages as compared to other non- electrical systems of traction includ-ing steam traction. 1.1 Traction Systems Broadly speaking, all traction systems may be classified into two categories : (a)non-electric traction systems They do not involve the use of electrical energy at any stage. Examples are : steam engine drive used in railways and internal-combustion-engine drive used for road transport. Fig.1 The above picture shows a diesel train engine. These engines are now being rapidly replaced by electric engines
(b)electric traction systems They involve the use of electric energy at some stage or the other. They may be further sub-divided into two groups : 1. First group consists of self-contained vehicles or locomotives. Examples are : battery-elec-tric drive and diesel-electric drive etc. Second group consists of vehicles which receive electric power from a distribution network fed at suitable points from either central power stations or suitably-spaced sub- stations. Examples are : 2. railway electric locomotive fed from overhead ac supply and tramways and trolly buses supplied with dc supply. 1.2 Direct Steam Engine Drive Though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, steam locomotive is still the most widely-adopted means of propulsion for railway work. Invariably, the reciprocating engine is employed because 1. it is inherently simple. 2. connection between its cylinders and the driving wheels is simple. 3. its speed can be controlled very easily. However, the steam locomotive suffers from the following disadvantages : 1. since it is difficult to install a condenser on a locomotive, the steam engine runs non-con-densing and, therefore, has a very low thermal efficiency of about 6-8 percent. 2. it has strictly limited overload capacity. 3. it is available for hauling work for about 60% of its working days, the remaining 40% being spent in preparing for service, in maintenance and overhaul.
1.3 Diesel-electric Drive It is a self-contained motive power unit which employs a diesel engine for direct drive of a dc generator. This generator supplies current to traction motors which are geared to the driving axles. In India, diesel locomotives were introduced in 1945 for shunting service on broad- guage (BG) sections and in 1956 for high-speed main-line operations on metre-guage (MG) sections. It was only in 1958 that Indian Railways went in for extensive main- line dieselisation.* Diesel-electric traction has the following advantages : 1. no modification of existing tracks is required while converting from steam to diesel-electric traction. 2. it provides greater tractive effort as compared to steam engine which results in higher start-ing acceleration. 3. it is available for hauling for about 90% of its working days. 4. diesel-electric locomotive is more efficient than a steam locomotive (though less efficient than an electric locomotive). 1.4 Disadvantages 1. for same power, diesel-electric locomotive is costlier than either the steam or electric loco-motive. 2. overload capacity is limited because diesel engine is a constant-kW output prime mover. 3. life of a diesel engine is comparatively shorter. 4. diesel-electric locomotive is heavier than plain electric locomotive because it carries the main engine, generator and traction motors etc. 5. regenerative braking cannot be employed though rheostatic braking can be.
Fig.2 Battery-electric Drive A battery electric vehicle (BEV), battery-only electric vehicle (BOEV) or all-electric vehicle is a type ofelectric vehicle (EV) that useschemical energystored inrechargeable batterypacks. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead ofinternal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, rail cars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks and cars. Since the introduction of the all-electric Nissan Leaf in December 2010, about 1 million highway legalplug-in electric vehicles have been sold worldwide by mid- September 2015, of which about 620,000 are all-electric passenger cars and light-duty trucks.[2] As of June 2016, the best-sellingall-electric car in history is the Nissan Leaf, with global sales of more than 228,000 units, followed by the Tesla Model S, with global sales of almost 130,000 units.
CHAPTER 2 Special-purpose vehicles Special-purpose vehicles come in a wide range of types, ranging from relatively common ones such as golf carts, things like electric golf trolleys, milk floats, all-terrain vehicles, neighborhood electric vehicles, and a wide range of other devices. Certain manufacturers specialize in electric-powered "in plant" work machines. Fig.3 Electric vehicles for disabled people in Årdalstangen, Norway The Diesel Locomotive Works at Varanasi turns out 140 locomotives of 2700 hp (2015 kW) annually. Soon it will be producing new generation diesel engines of 4000 hp (2985 kW).
2.1 advantages of electric traction 1. Cleanliness. Since it does not produce any smoke or corrosive fumes, electric traction is most suited for underground and tube railways. Also, it causes no damage to the buildings and other apparatus due to the absence of smoke and flue gases. 2. Maintenance Cost. The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is nearly 50% of that for a steam locomotive. Moreover, the maintenance time is also much less. 3. Starting Time. An electric locomotive can be started at a moment's notice whereas a steam locomotive requires about two hours to heat up. 4. High Starting Torque. The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque. Hence, it is possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to 0.8 km/h/s in steam traction. As a result, we are able to get the following additional advantages: (i) high schedule speed (ii) increased traffic handling capacity (iii) because of (i) and (ii) above, less terminal space is required—a factor of great importance in urban areas. 5. Braking. It is possible to use regenerative braking in electric traction system. It leads to the following advantages : (i) about 80% of the energy taken from the supply during ascent is returned to it during descent. (ii) goods traffic on gradients becomes safer and speedier. (iii) since mechanical brakes are used to a very small extent, maintenance of brake shoes, wheels, tyres and track rails is considerably reduced because of less wear and tear.
6. Saving in High Grade Coal. Steam locomotives use costly high-grade coal which is not so abundant. But electric locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or pit-head thermal power stations which use cheap low-grade coal. In this way, high-grade coal can be saved for metal-lurgical purposes. 7. Lower Centre of Gravity. Since height of an electric locomotive is much less than that of a steam locomotive, its centre of gravity is comparatively low. This fact enables an electric locomo-tive to negotiate curves at higher speeds quite safely. 8. Absence of Unbalanced Forces. Electric traction has higher coefficient of adhesion since there are no unbalanced forces produced by reciprocating masses as is the case in steam traction. It not only reduces the weight/kW ratio of an electric locomotive but also improves its riding quality in addition to reducing the wear and tear of the track rails. 2.2 Disadvantages of Electric Traction 1. The most vital factor against electric traction is the initial high cost of laying out overhead electric supply system. Unless the traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneco-nomical. 2. Power failure for few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours. 3. Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines suffer from elec-trical interference. Hence, these communication lines have either to be removed away from the rail track or else underground cables have to be used for the purpose which makes the entire system still more expensive. 4. Electric traction can be used only on those routes which have been electrified. Obviously, this restriction does not apply to steam traction. 5. Provision of a negative booster is essential in the case of electric traction. By avoiding the flow of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of underground pipe work and interference with telegraph and telephone circuits. 2.3 Systems of Railway Electrification Presently, following four types of track electrification systems are available : 1. Direct current system—600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V 2. Single-phase ac system—15-25 kV, 16 2 3 , 25 and 50 Hz
3. Three-phase ac system—3000-3500 V at 16 2 3 Hz 4. Composite system—involving conversion of single-phase ac into 3-phase ac or dc. 2.4Direct Current System Direct current at 600-750 V is universally employed for tramways in urban areas and for many suburban railways while 1500-3000 V dc is used for main line railways. The current collection is from third rail (or conductor rail) up to 750 V, where large currents are involved and from overhead wire for 1500 V and 3000 V, where small currents are involved. Since in majority of cases, track (or running) rails are used as the return conductor, only one conductor rail is required. Both of these contact systems are fed from substations which are spaced 3 to 5 km for heavy suburban traffic and 40-50 km for main lines operating at higher voltages of 1500 V to 3000 V. These sub-stations themselves receive power from 110/132 kV, 3-phase network (or grid). At these substations, this high-voltage 3-phase supply is converted into low-voltage 1-phase supply with the help of Scott-connected or V-connected 3-phase transformers (Art. 31.9). Next, this low ac voltage is converted into the required dc voltage by using suitable rectifiers or converters (like rotary converter, mercury-arc, metal or semiconductor rectifiers). These substations are usually automatic and are remote- controlled. The dc supply so obtained is fed via suitable contact system to the traction motors which are either dc series motors for electric locomotive or compound motors for tramway and trolley buses where regenerative braking is desired. It may be noted that for heavy suburban service, low voltage dc system is undoubtedly superior to 1-phase ac system due to the following reasons : 1. dc motors are better suited for frequent and rapid acceleration of heavy trains than ac mo-tors. 2. dc train equipment is lighter, less costly and more efficient than similar ac equipment. 3. when operating under similar service conditions, dc train consumes less energy than a 1-phase ac train. 4. the conductor rail for dc distribution system is less costly, both initially and in maintenance than the high-voltage overhead ac distribution system. 5. dc system causes no electrical interference with overhead communication lines. The only disadvantage of dc system is the necessity of locating ac/dc conversion sub-stations at relatively short distances apart.
CHAPTER-3 Single-Phase Low-frequency AC System In this system, ac voltages from 11 to 15 kV at 16 2 3 or 25 Hz are used. If supply is from a generating station exclusively meant for the traction system, there is no difficulty in getting the elec-tric supply of 16 2 3 or 25 Hz. If, however, electric supply is taken from the high voltage transmission lines at 50 Hz, then in addition to step-down transformer, the substation is provided with a frequency converter. The frequency converter equipment consists of a 3-phase synchronous motor which drives a I-phase alternator having or 25 Hz frequency. The 15 kV 16 2 3 or 25 Hz supply is fed to the electric locomotor via a single over- head wire (running rail providing the return path). A step-down transformer carried by the locomotive reduces the 15-kV voltage to 300-400 V for feeding the ac series motors. Speed regulation of ac series motors is achieved by applying variable voltage from the tapped secondary of the above transformer. Low-frequency ac supply is used because apart from improving the commutation properties of ac motors, it increases their efficiency and power factor. Moreover, at low frequency, line reactance is less so that line impedance drop and hence line voltage drop is reduced. Because of this reduced line drop, it is feasible to space the substations 50 to 80 km apart. Another advantage of employing low frequency is that it reduces telephonic interference. 3.1 Three-phase Low-frequency AC System It uses 3-phase induction motors which work on a 3.3 kV, 16 2 3 Hz supply. Sub- stations receive power at a very high voltage from 3-phase transmission lines at the usual industrial frequency of 50 Hz. This high voltage is stepped down to 3.3 kV by transformers whereas frequency is reduced from 50 Hz to 16 2 3 Hz by frequency converters installed at the sub-stations. Obviously, this system
employs two overhead contact wires, the track rail forming the third phase (of course, this leads to insulation difficulties at the junctions). Induction motors used in the system are quite simple and robust and give trouble- free operation. They possess the merits of high efficiency and of operating as a generator when driven at speeds above the synchronous speed. Hence, they have the property of automatic regenerative braking during the descent on gradients. However, it may be noted that despite all its advantages, this system has not found much favour and has, in fact, become obsolete because of its certain inherent limita-tions given below : 1. the overhead contact wire system becomes complicated at crossings and junctions. 2. constant-speed characteristics of induction motors are not suitable for traction work. 3. induction motors have speed/torque characteristics similar to dc shunt motors. Hence, they are not suitable for parallel operation because, even with little difference in rotational speeds caused by unequal diameters of the wheels, motors will becomes loaded very unevenly. 3.2 Composite System Such a system incorporates good points of two systems while ignoring their bad points. Two such composite systems presently in use are : 1. 1-phase to 3-phase system also called Kando system 2. 1-phase to dc system. 3.2.1 Kando System In this system, single-phase 16-kV, 50 Hz supply from the sub-station is picked up by the loco-motive through the single overhead contact wire. It is then converted into 3- phase ac supply at the same frequency by means of phase converter equipment carried on the locomotives. This 3-phase supply is then fed to the 3-phase induction motors. As seen, the complicated overhead two contact wire arrangement of ordinary 3- phase system is replaced by a single wire system. By using silicon controlled rectifier as inverter, it is possible to get variable-frequency 3-phase supply at 1/2 to 9 Hz frequency. At this low frequency, 3-phase motors develop high starting torque without taking excessive current. In view of the above, Kando system is likely to be developed further.
3.3 Single-phase AC to DC System This system combines the advantages of high-voltage ac distribution at industrial frequency with the dc series motors traction. It employs overhead 25-kV, 50-Hz supply which is stepped down by the transformer installed in the locomotive itself. The low- voltage ac supply is then converted into dc supply by the rectifier which is also carried on the locomotive. This dc supply is finally fed to dc series traction motor fitted between the wheels. The system of traction employing 25-kV, 50-Hz, 1-phase ac supply has been adopted for all future track electrification in India. 3.4. Advantages of 25-kV, 50-Hz AC System Advantages of this system of track electrification over other systems particularly the dc system are as under : 1. Light Overhead Catenary Since voltage is high (25 kV), line current for a given traction demand is less. Hence, cross-section of the overhead conductors is reduced. Since these small-sized conductors are light, support-ing structures and foundations are also light and simple. Of course, high voltage needs higher insula-tion which increases the cost of overhead equipment (OHE) but the reduction in the size of conduc-tors has an overriding effect. 2. Less Number of Substations Since in the 25-kV system, line current is less, line voltage drop which is mainly due to the resistance of the line is correspondingly less. It improves the voltage regulation of the line which fact makes larger spacing of 50-80 km between sub- stations possible as against 5-15 km with 1500 V dc system and 15-30 km with 3000 V dc sysem. Since the required number of substations along the track is considerably reduced, it leads to substantial saving in the capital expenditure on track electrifica-tion. 3. Flexibility in the Location of Substations Larger spacing of substations leads to greater flexibility in the selection of site for their proper location. These substations can be located near the national high-voltage grid which, in our country, fortunately runs close to the main railway routes. The substations are fed from this grid thereby saving the railway administration lot of expenditure for erecting special transmission lines for their substations. On the other hand, in view of closer spacing of dc substations and their far away location, railway administration has to erect its own transmission lines for taking feed from the national grid to the substations which consequently increases the initial cost of electrification.
4. Simplicity of Substation Design In ac systems, the substations are simple in design and layout because they do not have to install and maintain rotary converters or rectifiers as in dc systems. They only consist of static transformers alongwith their associated switchgear and take their power directly from the high-voltage national grid running over the length and breadth of our country. Since such sub-stations are remotely con-trolled, they have few attending personnel or even may be unattended. 5. Lower Cost of Fixed Installations The cost of fixed installations is much less for 25 kV ac system as compared to dc system. In fact, cost is in ascending order for 25 kV ac, 3000 V dc and 1500 V dc systems. Consequently, traffic densities for which these systems are economical are also in the ascending order. 6. Higher Coefficient of Adhesion The straight dc locomotive has a coefficient of adhesion of about 27% whereas its value for ac rectifier locomotive is nearly 45%. For this reason, a lighter ac locomotive can haul the same load as a heavier straight dc locomotive. Consequently, ac locomotives are capable of achieving higher speeds in coping with heavier traffic. 7. Higher Starting Efficiency An ac locomotive has higher starting efficiency than a straight dc locomotive. In dc locomotive supply voltage at starting is reduced by means of ohmic resistors but by on- load primary or secondary tap-changer in ac locomotives. 3.5 Disadvantages of 25-kV AC System 1. Single-phase ac system produces both current and voltage unbalancing effect on the supply. 2. It produces interference in telecommunication circuits. Fortunately, it is possible at least to minimize both these undesirable effects. Different track electrification systems are summarised below :
CHAPTER-4 Track Electrification system A railway electrificati A railway electrification systemsupplies electric power to railwaytrains and trams without an on-board prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure. Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation.systemsupplies electric power to railwaytrains and trams without an on- board prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure. Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation. Fig.4 Block Diagram of an AC Locomotive
4.1 The various components of an ac locomotive running on single- phase 25-kV, 50-Hz ac supply are numbered in Fig. 4 1. OH contact wire 2. pantograph 3. circuit breakers 4. on-load tap-changers 5. transformer 6. rectifier 7. smoothing choke 8. dc traction motors. Fig.5 electric locomotive
4.1.1 OH contact wire 25 kV Single Phase is the most preferred and universally accepted voltage standard for overhead traction system. Looking for any other voltage system, means every things has got to be developed namely traction power supply system, Over Head Equipment, vehicle traction system etc. In order to increase OHE voltage. 2×25 kV system is developed so that at vehicle level, the voltage remains 25 kV. Some Railways have preferred for 50 kV system but the same is limited to heavy haul dedicated rail system in which the locomotive also remains confined in that territory only. There are not many suppliers of this traction system. Dedicated freight Corridor project in India thought meant for heavy haul, but the locomotive has to work in DFC and IR territory, therefore, 2x25kV power supply system is chosen. 25 kV Traction power system was designed, developed and demonstrated all over world by SNCF. Indian while completing electrification of HWH-Bardwan section of Eastern Railway decided to adopt 25 kV system in collaboration with SNCF and converted 3000V DC just when it was completed into 25 kV instead running it at 3000 V DC. The rolling stock procured from abroad was diverted for Mumbai Sub- urban system and used after conversion from 3000V DC into 1500 V DC. Fig.6 overhead contact wire 132 kV/220 kV 3 phase supply is taken from State Utility and two phase (say U-V)are dropped at Traction Sub-station and for the purpose of load balancing V-W, VW and W-U phase are dropped at subsequent TSSs. There are mainly five types of power supply arrangement so far prevailing over
4.1.2 pantograph A pantograph (Greek roots παντ- "all, every" and γραφ- "to write", from their original use for copying writing) is a mechanical linkage connected in a manner based on parallelograms so that the movement of one pen, in tracing an image, produces identical movements in a second pen. If a line drawing is traced by the first point, an identical, enlarged, or miniaturized copy will be drawn by a pen fixed to the other. Using the same principle, different kinds of pantographs are used for other forms of duplication in areas such as sculpture, minting, engraving and milling. Fig.7 pantograph Because of the shape of the original device, a pantograph also refers to a kind of structure that can compress or extend like an accordion, forming a characteristic rhomboidal pattern. This can be found in extension arms for wall- mounted mirrors, temporary fences, scissor lifts, and other scissor mechanisms such as the pantograph used on electric locomotives and trams. 4.1.2 circuit breakers A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused byovercurrent or overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after protective relays detect a fault. Unlike afuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or afuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated to ADS (Automatic Disconnection of Supply).
Fig.8 circuit breaker 4.1.3 on-load tap-changers A tap changer is a connection point selection mechanism along a power transformer winding that allows a variable number of turns to be selected in discrete steps. A transformer with a variable turns ratio is produced, enabling stepped voltage regulation of the output. The tap selection may be made via an automatic or manual tap changer mechanism. Fig.9 online tap changer 4.1.4 transformer A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications. A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.
Fig.10 Transformer Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power gridweighing hundreds of tons. 4.1.5 Rectifier A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, includingvacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based Fig.11 Rectifier semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point- contact rectifier or "crystal detector". Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As
noted,detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame. Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady current. More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC, is called an inverter 4.1.6 smoothing choke Smoothing choke. In the load system of each rectifying system the output voltage is the sum of two components: constant and varying. In order to reduce the pulsation, which are usually unfavourable for the receiver, a rectifying filter is connected between the rectifier output and the load. Fig.12 smoothing choke 4.1.7 dc traction motors A traction motor is an electric motor used for propulsion of a vehicle, such as an electric locomotive or electric roadway vehicle. Traction motors are used in electrically powered rail vehicles such as electric multiple units and other electric vehicles such as electric milk floats, elevators, conveyors, andtrolleybuses, as well as vehicles with electrical transmission systems such as diesel- electric, electric hybrid vehicles, and battery electric vehicles.
Fig.13 dc traction motor 4.1.7 Motortypes and control Direct-current motors with series field windings were the oldest type of traction motors. These provided a speed-torque characteristic useful for propulsion, providing high torque at lower speeds for acceleration of the vehicle, and declining torque as speed increased. By arranging the field winding with multiple taps, the speed characteristic could be varied, allowing relatively smooth operator control of acceleration. A further measure of control was provided by using pairs of motors on a vehicle; for slow operation or heavy loads, two motors could be run in series off the direct current supply. Where higher speed was desired, the motors could be operated in parallel, making a higher voltage available at each and so allowing higher speeds. Parts of a rail system might use different voltages, with higher voltages in long runs between stations and lower voltage near stations where slower operation would be useful. A variant of the DC system was the AC operated series motor, which is essentially the same device but operated on alternating current. Since both the armature and field current reverse at the same time, the behavior of the motor is similar to that when energized with direct current. To achieve better operating conditions, AC railways were often supplied with current at a lower frequency than the commercial supply used for general lighting and power; special traction current power stations were used, or rotary converters used to convert 50 or 60 Hz commercial power to the 16 2/3 Hz frequency used for AC traction motors. The AC system allowed efficient distribution of power down the length of a rail line, and also permitted speed control with switchgear on the vehicle. AC induction motors and synchronous motors are simple and low maintenance, but are awkward to apply for traction motors because of their fixed speed characteristic. An AC induction motor only generates useful amounts of power over a narrow speed range determined by its construction and the frequency of the AC power supply. The advent ofpower semiconductors has made it possible to fit a variable frequency drive on a locomotive; this allows a wide range of speeds, AC power transmission, and rugged induction motors without wearing parts like brushes and commutators
Prospects, current and future lines of research, conclusions Obviously, for lack of space, a whole range of issues have been left undealt with, but they are of no less importance: maximum starting efforts and couplings, load capacity and inservice power, the influence of the vehicles’ lateral and vertical dynamics, generation systems, energy transport and capture, pantographs and floaters, service automation and traction control, regenerative brakes and energy recovery systems, and a long etcetera. As a final conclusion, the most current areas of progress in research, development and innovation and their future prospects are mainly directed towards achieving a railway that is better adapted to the new global needs of mobility, sustainability and respect for the environment: a. More efficient systems for generating, transporting, capturing, transforming, utilising, regulating and recovering energy. b. Traction control and service automation systems, regenerative braking and energy storage systems, reversible electrical supply sub-stations and rail traffic management. c. Multidisciplinary optimisation of infrastructure and vehicle design. d. The design implications of vehicles, infrastructures and systems in energy consumption and the environmental impact of transport. e. Optimisation of vehicles and infrastructures for their use in multimodal systems. f. Calculation systems, predicting and optimising energy consumption and emissions. g. Foreseeable consequences of technological development on the innovation of vehicles and infrastructures for sustainable mobility.
References Andrews, H.I. (1986). RailwayTraction. The Principles of Mechanical and Electrical Railway Traction. Ed: Elsevier. ISBN: 0-444-42489-X. Coenraad, E. (2001). Modern Railway Track. Ed. Delft University of Technology. ISBN: 90- 800324-3-3. Delft, Holanda. Esperilla, J.J., Romero, G., Félez, J., Carretero, A. (2007). “Bond Graph simulation of a hybrid vehicle”. Actas del International Congress of Bond Graph Modeling, ICBGM’07. www.intechopen.com Reliability and 28 Safety in Railway Faure, R. (2004). La tracción eléctrica en la alta velocidad ferroviaria (A.V.F.), Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, ISBN 84-380- 0274-9, Madrid, España. Iwnicki, S. (2006). Handbook of Railway Dynamics. Ed. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0- 8493-3321-7. London, Reino Unido. Karnopp, D.; Margolis, D.; Rosenberg, R. (2000). System Dynamics: Modeling and Simulation of Mechatronic systems. Ed. John Wiley & Sons, LTD (2ª). Chapter 11. ISBN: 978-0-471- 33301-2. Estados Unidos. Karnopp, D. (2005). Understanding Induction Motor State Equations Using Bond Graphs. Actas del International Congress of Bond Graph Modeling, ICBGM’05. Lozano, J.A.; Félez, J.; Mera, J.M.; Sanz, J.D. (2010). Using Bond-Graph technique for modelling and simulating railway drive systems. IEEE Computer Society Digital Library (CSDL), 2010 12th Congress on Computer Modelling and Simulation. ISBN 978-90-7695- 4016-0. BMS Number CFP1089D-CDR. Cambridge, Reino Unido.
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