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Data collection methods in Nursing research

This document discusses various methods for collecting data, including interviews, questionnaires, observation, and record analysis. It provides details on each method, such as advantages and disadvantages. For interviews, it explains the different types of interview structures and how to effectively conduct interviews. For questionnaires, it outlines best practices for developing questions, administration, and improving response rates. The document also covers analyzing records, developing tools and techniques for data collection, and selecting appropriate methods based on the nature of the study.

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DATA COLLECTION METHODS deepa
Introduction  Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study  Primary and secondary data
 Interview  Questioning  Observation  Bio physiological measurements  Psychosocial measurement scales  Record analysis
CONCEPT Data collection involves gathering relevant data in order to achieve an answer to the problem stated. There are various methods of data collection which can be used by the investigator depending upon the nature of study undertaken.
PURPOSES OF DATA COLLECTION  identify variables/facts  measure variable/ phenomena  describe behaviour  obtain empirical evidence (objective, reliable, valid) Data is meaningless as by itself it does not explain or cause change, information does. Therefore, the aim of gathering and summarizing data is to transform this into information in order to:
FIVE ‘W’s OF DATA COLLECTION  What data to collect? (Consideration on type of data)  From whom data is to be collected  Who will collect data  From where the data will be collected  When is the data to be collected
The number of data to be collected will depend on:  Type of study  Hypothesis to be tested  Number of variables  Type of statistical computation  In an experimental study the number will also be determined by the number of experimental and control groups. One needs also to consider the method of administration, the nature of treatment and the schedule.
SOURCES OF DATA  Documentary- primary and secondary  Field sources  Include living persons who have a fund of knowledge about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and changes over a considerable period of time.  These people are in a position to describe not only the existing state of affairs but also the observable trends and significant milestones in a social process.
HISTORICAL DATA  These consist of documents and various historical sources to which the historian himself has access.  Materials of cultural history and analytical history.  Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses.  These can be oral, written evidence, artifacts etc. Historical data is a combination of primary & secondary and field sources.
Methods and tools  Methods- steps or strategies  Technique- means of gathering data with the use of specific tools that are used in given methods  Instrument/ tools- instrument is a device used to measure the concept that researcher uses to collect data
TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS  Observation  Observation check list (structured unstructured)  Rating scales, anecdotes  Machineries, i.e. Video tape/ Films, electrocardiogram, closed circuit T.V. TOOLS Instrument procedure TECHNIQUES Method of collecting data
 Questioning- self report  Questionnaire,  opinionnaire,  Attitude Scale  Tests on psychomotor skills  Standardized tools  Physiological measurements.
 Biophysical measurements.  Interview In vivo In vitro Physical measurements – e.g. temperature Chemical measurements- e.g. hormone, sugar Microbiological measurements-e.g. bacterial count  Interview Schedule
 Record Analysis (Content)  Others –  Computer assisted measurement  Q sorts projective techniques & Vignettes
Selection of methods of data collection  Nature of phenomenon under study  Type of research subjects  Type of research study  Purpose  Size of sample  Distribution of target population  Time frame of study  Literacy level of the subjects  Availability of resources and manpower  Researchers knowledge level and competence
Criteria of evaluation/ assessment of collection methods  Accuracy and completeness  Compatibility with educational level, socio cultural values and beliefs  In accordance with nature of phenomenon, purpose, time frame and resources
RECORD ANALYSIS  Records are compilation of writings and figures that individuals have collected.  Records are a valuable and lucrative source of nursing research data.  Records are ever-present source of material.  Records are found everywhere in homes, offices, places of leisure, hospitals, museum (Relics & artifacts), personal diaries and letters, speeches, Articles, documents etc.  Records are available in every department, institution, organizations & Individuals.  Data sources may be primary or secondary. INTRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES  Records are unbiased collected.  Records cover a long period of times, therefore research can discover events and trends.  Records are inexpensive. All available at one time.  Records are convenient & time saving and available in their pure form, complied in neat and orderly fashioned. Records provide readily available data.  Researcher can not bias the subjects as the records have been already collected.
Existence of large quantity of records allows researcher a considerable choice of data. Data are obtained by an unobtrusive method Records can provide personal information about subjects, beliefs, attitudes and feelings concerning the topic of interest. Records don’t rely on recall but were recorded when they occurred.
DISADVANTAGES  Amount of information is limited to what is available. Researcher can not get more data as subjects are not present. If record is incomplete, no way to complete it.  No one sure under which conditions data were collected. Was more than one person involved in compilation? How careful they were to handle facts & figures.  No assurance of accuracy of the records,  People who presented the original records were not aware whether it would be used for research. Therefore, researcher has to admit any error into the study that was built in the original records.
 Some serious draw backs may be there in data recording. For e.g. the person who recorded the data may not have recorded adequately.  Search for very old records and extracting information from records may be time consuming.  Requesting people who are not involved in the research work to provide records, may be intrusion into their work schedule.
PROBLEMS  Permission has to be sought from concerned People to study records.  Difficult to trace if not kept in order & well organised.  Authorities/ Concerned people/ Officer may not like their records to be disturbed for the fear of misplacing, pulling out information (loss of paper from files)  Organisation/ Institution may not like anyone to go through their pvt. Files other than selected individuals.
 Researcher will require help to retrieve the data.  Researcher may require interpretation of records (Meaning of words, symbols, figures etc)  Records research may be a disagreeable task as records are stored in basements, stores, boxes etc. Seems difficult to locate & find records for the period needed.  Another problem with records is item equivalency. Are records based on same criteria ? Records from two institutions may not have data on a particular variable in the same manner.
 Some records are seldom used after their compilation. People who compiled might have died or left the institution or moved away. So value of such records is forgotten and for all practical purposes they are lost.  Organizations may give permission to use records provided a copy of final research report is given to them.  It is important to maintain anonymity, privacy, truth and accuracy and a consideration for the personal preferences of the individuals involved.
GUIDELINES IN USE OF RECORDS  Both primary & secondary sources of data can be used. Prefer primary source  Essential to establish authenticity, accuracy, validity & reliability of data sources (external and internal criticism)
QUESTIONNAIRE  Most common research instrument  It is a paper-pencil approach to data collection  Can be used with some other tools too in a single study  Comprised of a series of questions that are filled in by all subjects in the sample.  May be distributed to subjects in the classroom, on the streets, on campus, home or at work;  Can be mailed to those who live in a large geographical area as it is expensive and time consuming to reach individuals directly.
PURPOSES  To elicit information from subjects to supplement findings  Explore a new topic  Assess knowledge, attitude, practices, beliefs, opinions & feelings.
ADVANTAGES  Relatively simple method of collecting data. Items can be constructed easily by beginning researcher.  Rapid and efficient method of gathering data  Collect data from a widely scattered population  Inexpensive to distribute  Easy to tabulate data from close ended items  Respondents can remain anonymous  Simple procedure to explore a new topic  Easiest tool to test for validity & reliability
 Questionnaire can be flexible concerning type of item, order of items and topics covered by the researcher.  Subjects have time to contemplate their response to each question  Measurement is enhanced because all subjects respond to the same questions.  Easy accomplishment of data analysis and interpretation.
DISADVANTAGES  Inability to probe a topic in-depth unless the questionnaire is lengthy.  Respondents may omit or disregard any item that they choose without giving any explanation  Some items may force subjects to choose response that are not their actual choice (Forced-choice items).  Amount of information gathered is limited by subjects’ time & interest span. Usually people don’t like to take more than 25 minutes to answer a questionnaire. (Length of questionnaire should not be more than 60
 Printing may be costly if questionnaire lengthy and printed on good quality of paper.  Addressing outside envelops and postage are time consuming and expensive respectively.  Data are limited to information given voluntarily by the subject. Not all subjects comply with request to participate  Some items may be misunderstood.  Questionnaire use limited to literate.  Subjects’ non-verbal cues cannot be observed.
 it is impossible to know who returned the questionnaires in case follow up is needed.  Special efforts must be made to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.  Researcher has no opportunity to interact with respondents.  Subjects can express their views/opinions better while speaking than writing.
Types of Questionnaire  Close Ended (fixed Alternatives)  Open Ended.
Close Ended  After questions respondents are given a number of alternatives to either mark a “Yes” or “No”, check an item from list of suggested responses.  Items may be forced choice type e.g. Do you still beat your wife? “Yes”  Advantage : Easy to fill, tabulate, analyze and data suited many statistical analysis.  Disadvantage: Limited to specific topic to be answered in a specific way.
Open Ended Questions  Have no choices from which respondents select their response. Respondent must “Create” their response. Example: Why did you choose to take your graduate work at this university? Advantage : Stimulate thought, solicit suggestions, probe people’s memories.
Disadvantage: Not suited for mailed questionnaire - Difficult to construct meaningful variables for statistical analysis. - Analysis is often problematic and time consuming
Partially closed ended questions – provide a compromise  Though answer choices provided, but subjects have the option of creating their own response. Example : For what reasons did you retire before the age of 58? (i) Health reasons (ii) desire for more free time (iii) Was assured of more than adequate income (iv) Please list as many other reasons as you can think of.
Factors to consider Sampl e • Who are u going to ask Metho d • How are u going to ask Questio nnaire • What are u going to ask Result • What will u do with the data Cost • How much do u want to pay for the answer Time scale • By when u need the data
Methods of questionnaire administration Postal Phone Electronic Personally administered
Framing Questions  Question Content – based on researcher’s aims, concepts under study.  Question Wording - Clarity - Ability of respondents to reply - Bias - Handling sensitive or personal information.
 Response Alternatives: - Select appropriate response alternatives, - Ordering responses rationally - Response length – Not too lengthy as it is inefficient and cumbersome to read detailed replies.  Organization – Plan question sequence (order of question and schedule format) - Items should relate to topic
- Items organized into units - Questions to be specific. - Items to elicit demographic data. - Schedule format – questionnaire schedule affects the accuracy of the response. Formats that are easy to follow and pleasing to the eye are completed by respondents.
 Introduction and Instructions: - State the nature and purpose of the study in introduction. - Why the subjects are being questioned. - Directions for respondents to respond. - Confidentiality and anonymity should be assured.
- Personal data – Age, Sex, Education. - Back ground data – Family income, occupation, living environment etc. - Content – Knowledge, opinion, belief, attitude etc. - Acknowledging participation.
Writing Good Questions  Use words that are simple, direct and familiar to all.  Question – Clear and Specific  Define or quality the term that can be easily be misinterpreted.  Avoid double barreled questions.  Do you think that students should have more classes about history and culture?  Beware of double negatives (Are you against not allowing nurses to strike?)  Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis. e.g. should all schools offer a modern foreign language?
 Avoid questions that are leading or suggest the expected answer. e.g. you don’t approve of strikes, do you?  Be sure alternatives are enough and appropriate.  Reason for asking personal question should be given.  Problem words – lead to confusion in subject’s mind. e.g. How many patients did you care for last week?
Administration of Questionnaire  Self administered: - Individual / Group administration - Maximizes the return rate. - Allow researcher to clarify any doubts while responding.  Mailing distribution – Mailed to respondents with a request letter. Advantage : Can cover large widely scattered population
Disadvantage: Some items may need clarification - Completion rate tend to be low - Low returns - Monitoring return.  Acceptable response rate - 50% Adequate - 60% Good -70% or more is very good.
 Follow up Mailing – Provides stimuli for responding - Three mailings seem the most efficient. - Timing of follow up (2 -3 weeks is a reasonable space between mailings). - Sending follow up letters.
Interview – Technique of Data Collection • Second most common method of data collection • Face to face interpersonal role situation. • Interview schedule – structured, semi- structured, unstructured. • Interview schedule is an oral questionnaire that is read to the respondent by the researcher whereas interview guide provides ideas but allows the interviewer freedom to pursue topics in depth. • Interviewer has an ability to control over the level of questioning
Advantages • Data from each interview are usable, whereas not true for each questionnaire returned. • In-depth data can be obtained, since researcher can pursue any question of special interest. • Interview offers protection against ambiguous or confusing questions. • Respondents are less likely to give “don’t know” responses or leave a question unanswered • Flexibility • Permit greater control over the sample
• Suitable for probing complex situations and sensitive issues. • Higher proportion of responses are obtained from potential respondents. • Saves interviewee’s time as she/he doesn’t have to go through the process of returning the instrument.
• Useful for both literate & illiterates and also broader group of individuals i.e. young children, blind, very elderly etc. • Face to face interviews have an advantage in their ability to produce additional data through observation (non-verbal) • Telephones/videos may be used for soliciting some types of interview data, especially when time period for gathering information is short.
Disadvantages • It is time consuming and costly • Rapport and interpersonal relationships are important aspect of this technique. Therefore, element of bias can be from both interviewer and interviewee. • Interviewer usually has little or no choice in the data or place of the interview • Difficult to make a comparison of data collected by one interviewer’s with another unless a rigid procedure is followed. In large research projects, training of interviewers adds to the expense of the project
• When more than one interviewer collect data of a study, the influence of personal bias of interviewers may affect objectivity. • Recording may be biased, incomplete or selective
Conducting the Interview • Interviews can be conducted by Face to face meeting Telephonically Video-recording • Conduct in a quiet peaceful atmosphere • Subject to be seated in a comfortable position • Subject should be informed before hand as to how much time interview will take.
• Recording of responses should be done simultaneously. Sometimes with subject’s permission, interviewer may record responses by use of tape recorder/video recording. Ofcourse experience of writing in shorthand is useful. • Interviewer must ask the questions in a similar fashion throughout the data gathering process.
• Build Rapport with the interviewee by – Introducing self, Nature and purpose of study Ask permission to interview Create a friendly and pleasant atmosphere for the subjects Assure interviewee’s anonymity and confidentiality of responses Request for frank opinions/feeling etc. Should not pressure the individual to answer. They should be told they need not answer embarrassing questions if they don’t wish to do so.
Problems • Ineffective procedure for obtaining actual behaviour patterns • Some interviewees may have faulty memories and either can not remember a certain fact or guess what seems to be a reasonable answer. • Subjects may give answers which is representative of a group rather than their own ideas • Presence of interviewer may influence the subjects, so that they answer questions differently than they would if filling a questionnaire
• Sample mortality. (Not everyone in the expected sample may be present) • Some respondents may not be qualified to answer some questions asked to them. May not recognize their own problems. • Respondents get nervous seeing their responses being written. • Time is lost, when interviewer has to record responses. In haste, he may make some mechanical mistake.
• Interviewee may lose his train of thoughts while waiting the interviewer to finish writing the last response. Thus some data may be lost. • Interviewer is likely to overlook/become unaware of non-verbal cues while getting busy with interview guide or schedule.
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE  It is one of the basic and oldest method to gather data  Is systematically planned and recorded.  It is a technique to acquire information through occurrence that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.  It is a two part process i.e. someone is observing and there is something to observe (observer; observed)
Four Broad Questions in observation  What should be observed?  How should observation be recorded ?  What procedures should be used to try to assure the accuracy of observation ?  What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed, and how can such relationship be established?
Phenomena Amenable to Observation  Characteristics and conditions of individuals – People’s attributes, status, Physiological conditions (Through senses and apparatus)  Verbal communication behaviour – linguistic behaviour, content & structure of conversation, entire process of social interaction.  Non-verbal communication behaviour – Facial expressions, touch posture, gesture, body movements, Linguistic behaviour – manner of speaking, loudness, continuity of speech
 Activities – People’s behaviour that communicates overt state. Actions indicative of health status – Physical and emotional functioning; study of activities of health personnel etc.  Skill attainment and Performance- Nursing skills- Procedures, Techniques.  Environmental characteristics/Attributes – noise levels, cleanliness, ventilation, odour, water supply, mosquito breeding, Infrastructure.
Units of Observation Two basic approaches for making decision concerning what constitutes a unit.  Molar Approach – Observation of large units of behaviour and treating them as a whole. (Study of psychiatric patients swings in verbal & non verbal behaviour on one hand and passive behaviour on the other hand.  Molecular Approach – Observation of small and highly specific behaviour e.g. observation of each movement, gesture, action & treating each action separately or perhaps breaking it further into smaller units.
Approaches
Types  Structured interview  Unstructured interview  Semi structured interview  In depth interview  Focused group interview  Telephone interview
Interviewing process  Preparation for interview  Pre interview introduction  Developing rapport  Carrying the interview forward  Recording the interview  Closing the interview
Observation methods  Unstructured observation – is made to provide as complete and non-selective a description as possible of an event –or behaviour observed. Techniques used for unstructured method of observation :- Participant observation – involves researcher to participate in the functioning of social group under investigation. Researcher attempts not to interject his views & meaning into the social situation under observation.
Unstructured observation method  Provides rich and deep understanding of human behaviour.  Observer bias and influence are prominent difficulties  Memory distortions represent another possible source of inaccuracy.
 Log and field notes  Anecdotes  Field diaries  Video and tape recording
Logs, Field Notes, Anecdotes  Logs – is a record of events & conversation, maintained on daily basis.  Field Notes – include daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic and include more interpretation than mere listing of occurrences. Essential to record simultaneously because of memory failure.  Anecdotes – Focus on behaviour of particular interest. Anecdote typically selects specific kind of events and behaviours for observation before hand. Observer objectively and accurately records the observation.
Structured Observation  Excellent method of data collection.  Indicates presence or absence of pre-specified behaviour / attribute.  More subjects can be observed in much less time  Checklists, rating scales and category system are commonly used tools in structured observation.  Sampling by time and event are common strategies for observational sampling. Frequency and duration of activity/event/ behaviour needs to be determined.  Category system represents an attempt to designate in a systematic or quantitative fashion the qualitative behaviours and events transpiring within the observations setting.
 Check list  Rating scales  Category system
 Considerations in category system Careful and explicit definition of behaviours and characterstics Referrant behaviour should be mutually exclusive. Developing a system of coding. Pilot run of constructed category system to assess its suitability for intended study. Developing, refining and retesting of new category system.
Types Participant  Live or work in the field  Unstructured tools Non participant  Observe without interaction  Children and animals
Types of Observation  No concealment and participant  Concealment and participant  Concealment and non-participant  No concealment and non-participant
 No concealment and participant observation  Observer make no alteration in the social setting  Doesn’t make observation covertly.  Subjects are aware of researcher’s presence but not aware of researcher’s underlying motive.  Drawbacks are – - Hawthorne effect (subjects awareness of being observed). - Interaction between the observed & observer alters the subjects’ behaviour.
 Concealment and participant observation Researcher observes subjects’ behaviour in their natural setting but adopts a passive role as otherwise it may alter subjects behaviour. Researcher observes and records observation with minimum intervention. The problem of behaviour distortion with presence of observer is known as reactive measurement effect.
 Concealment and non- participant observation  Researcher makes observation from the periphery of a social setting in such a way that he is present but doesn’t interact with others. (Also called lurking)  Observer does not make his intentions known to the group, nor does he make any effort to participate.  Can collect great deal of information.  If observer is not nearby, difficulty in hearing can lead to misunderstanding.  Question of violation of human rights – i.e. lack of dignity in data collection because the observed are neither aware of the observer nor being observed.
 No concealment and Non-participant observation Extremely valuable in nursing research intervention studies. Observer’s presence known Subjects aware of their participation in the study and being observed. Research Methods: A Modular Approach By Sherri Jackson
Types Depending on the planning structured unstructured Level of involvement participant Non participant Level of disguise Concealment No concealment
Observation Sampling Technique  Usually impossible to observe behaviour for extended period of time because of fatigue and boredom.  Commonly used techniques are:- Time sampling method Event sampling Time sampling – involves selection of time periods during which observation will take place. Researcher should decide duration & time when to begin and when to stop
Event sampling  Event sampling refers to a diverse class of specific empirical methods for studying individual experiences and social processes within their natural, spontaneous context.  Event sampling procedures are designed to obtain reasonably detailed accounts of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours as they occur in everyday life.
Difference  Time sampling = When you set a designated amount of time e.g. 30 seconds and observe what behaviour is happening in these intervals. Here behaviour is recorded at regular, preset interval.  Event sampling = Watching all the time and marking down when the specific behaviour is happening..
Steps in Developing An Observation Schedule/ planning the observation  Determine the focus- questions to be answered  Selecting – aspects of behaviour to be observed.  Defining the behaviour that fall with in a category.  Design a system for data collection  Recording sheet and checklists  Observation guides-interactions, processes or behaviors  Field notes  Select the sites  Select the observers  Train observers.  Quantify observations.  Developing procedures to facilitate recording
 Testing of observation schedule by checking: Inter-rater reliability (85% agreement between two observers/raters) Intrarater reliability – same rater observes same behaviour/event on two or more occasions. Involves multiple observations extending over days and weeks. Test-retest reliability is considered important for such observational recordings.
Structured observations by nonresearch observers  Here the person completing the scale might be asked to describe the attributes and behaviours of another person.  Mother might be asked to describe the behavior problems of her preschool child  Adv  Economical  Reactivity- an outsider observing  Occurrence in private situations  Infrequency ( sleep walking)
Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Important technique for studying human behaviour specially where interventions are used. Provides depth and variety of information. Observation and interpretation is a demanding task requiring attention, sensation, perception and conception.
Researcher is not dependent on subjects who consent to answer, all subjects are potential respondents. Subjects are usually available unlike questionnaire where one is dependent on return of mailed questionnaire. It allows view of complete situation first hand and include sequence of events. Lack of consent to being observed. • Time and duration of event can’t be predicted usually observer may wait until an event happens. Therefore it is difficult to know when to be present to observe key events.
All the data obtained by the observation are usable unlike questionnaire where irrelevant information may be included because respondents misunderstand the questions asked to them. It is most open to use of recording devices such as tape-recorders and cameras. Data obtained are vulnerable to many distortions and biases. Observed events are subjected to researchers cultural background and personal interpretations. Use of recording devices is expensive.
One can make use of assistants to carry out observations. Extensive training is necessary if assistant observers are used. Observers may get involved in the situation which can cause threat to the objectivity of the data collected. Especially rating scales are susceptible to two distinct type of errors. ‘Halo effect’ tendency of the rater to be influenced by one characteristic in rating other non-related characteristics. Error of leniency: Tendency of the observer to rate everything positively. Error of severity: tendency of the observer to rate too harshly.
Ethics Observation of human beings involves some important ethical implications in terms of their rights, willingness to be observed. Should they be observed without their knowledge? Is it permissible to inform the subjects that they are being observed? Subjects should be assured of their anonymity, confidentiality. Can we force the subjects to participate in the study ? Is their unwillingness genuine ?
Polit describes three common ethical requirements, which are : voluntary participation/freedom from physical or psychological harm and distress, and anonymity. Observation without participants permission may not assume subjects voluntary participation. Sudden disclosure of being observed may cause distress and mental trauma to some subjects. Therefore, researcher needs to decide on these sensitive questioning prior to data collection.
Examples  Dichotomous q  MCQ  Cafeteria q  Rank order q  Contingency q  Rating q  Importance q  Likert q  Bipolar q  Matrix q  Double barreled  Double negatives  Leading q  Long q  Ambiguous q
Notes on  Composite scales  Likert scale  Semantic differential scales  Visual analogue scales  With egs
Rating scales  Express an opinion on person, object, situation or character  In RS we judge object in absolute terms against specified criteria without reference to other similar objects  Refers to a scale with a set of opinion , which describes varying degree of the dimensions of an attitude being observed  A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or a qualitative attribute  eg Likert scale  3 point, 5 point or 7 point RS
Characteristics  Value judgments about attributes of one person by another person  Carry out structured observations  Quantitative judgment about a qualitative attribute  Provide flexibility  Guilford  Clarity  Relevance  Variety  Objectivity  Uniqueness