Abstract
Electronic skin (e-skin) has evolved from rigid silicon-based systems into flexible, multifunctional platforms that emulate the sensory and mechanical properties of human skin. Among various materials, electrospun nanofibers have emerged as a promising substrate for next-generation e-skin due to their notable breathability, mechanical compliance, biocompatibility, and conformability. This review critically examines recent progress in electrospun nanofiber-based e-skins, with a particular emphasis on the synergistic integration of sensing and energy harvesting for autonomous systems. We explore advancements in material selection, structural design, and fabrication techniques, providing insights into electrospinning principles and parameters. The integration of conductive nanomaterials within tailored nanofiber architectures enables multimodal sensing capabilities through piezoresistive, capacitive, and piezoelectric mechanisms. This work highlights key developments across flexible sensors, energy harvesting devices (PENGs, TENGs) and storage solutions, delving into their applications in health monitoring, human–machine interaction (HMI), and environmental sensing. While notable strides have been made, we critically address persistent challenges in large-scale manufacturing, long-term stability, and energy efficiency. The future outlook emphasizes AI-enhanced adaptive systems, neuromorphic signal processing, and sustainable material engineering, providing a strategic framework for developing the next generation of intelligent, self-sufficient e-skin platforms.
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1 Introduction
Electronic skin (e-skin) represents a transformative class of flexible and stretchable electronic systems designed to replicate the sensory and mechanical properties of human skin. Inspired by the skin’s multifaceted ability to detect tactile, thermal, and biochemical stimuli, e-skin technologies have garnered significant interest for applications in healthcare monitoring, robotics, and (HMI) [1,2,3]. The ultimate goal is to create wearable platforms that seamlessly integrate with the human body, enabling continuous, non-invasive monitoring and interaction with the environment.
The evolution of e-skin began with rigid silicon-based systems fabricated using conventional microfabrication techniques [4]. While these early prototypes could sense fundamental parameters like pressure and temperature, their inherent brittleness and mechanical mismatch with biological tissues severely limited practical deployment on soft, curved, or dynamic surfaces [5, 6]. This limitation prompted a paradigm shift toward flexible electronics, enabled by the emergence of deformable functional materials, including conductive polymers, carbon-based nanomaterials, and metallic nanowires [7]. These materials facilitated the development of lightweight, mechanically compliant devices capable of high-fidelity signal detection under dynamic conditions. Concurrent advances in structural engineering, such as serpentine interconnects and thin-film transistors, facilitated the development of ultra-flexible, stretchable systems that intimately conform to the human body [8]. Despite this remarkable progress, significant challenges persist in achieving long-term mechanical durability, maintaining biocompatibility during prolonged skin contact, and ensuring sustainable power autonomy [9].
Within this context, electrospun nanofibers have emerged as a particularly promising platform for next-generation e-skin development. Their unique architectural features including high surface-area-to-volume ratio, tunable porosity, and mechanical compliance address several limitations of previous systems [10]. The electrospinning process enables the fabrication of continuous, uniform fibers with diameters ranging from tens of nanometers to several micrometers, yielding lightweight, flexible mats that closely mimic the extracellular matrix [11]. These nanofibrous networks support efficient air and moisture exchange, significantly improving wearing comfort and reducing skin irritation during long-term use [12], a key advantage over many non-fibrous flexible substrates.
Electrospun nanofibers offer a unique combination of properties that distinguishes them from other flexible platforms like thin-film electronics or conductive textiles. While thin films can be flexible, they often lack breathability. Conversely, standard textiles are breathable but lack native electronic functionality. Nanofibers uniquely provide an ideal synergy of mechanical compliance, high surface area for sensitive sensing, tunable nano-porosity for breathability and moisture-wicking, and a biomimetic structure that facilitates seamless integration with biological tissues, all within a single, scalable material platform [13].
The functional versatility of electrospun nanofibers stems from their compositional tunability and structural engineerability. By incorporating conductive nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, MXenes, or metallic nanowires into polymer matrices, researchers have created highly sensitive sensing platforms capable of detecting pressure, strain, temperature, and biochemical signals [14, 15]. Structural innovations, including helical geometries and core-shell configurations, further enhance mechanical stretchability, with some designs achieving elongations exceeding 1000% while maintaining electrical functionality [16]. Beyond sensing, electrospun nanofibers enable the seamless integration of energy harvesting and storage components a critical requirement for autonomous e-skin systems. Nanofiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators TENGs and piezoelectric nanogenerators PENGs effectively convert biomechanical motions into electrical energy, while complementary nanofiber-based supercapacitors and batteries provide compact energy storage solutions [17]. This convergence of sensing and energy functionalities within a single, skin-conformal platform represents a significant advancement toward self-powered wearable electronics.
However, the development of nanofiber-based e-skins is not without challenges. While many natural polymers (e.g., chitosan, gelatin) and some synthetic biopolymers (e.g., polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL)) offer excellent biocompatibility [10], their integration with highly conductive fillers raises concerns about long-term biological safety. Similarly, achieving scalable manufacturing while maintaining precise control over fiber morphology remains technically demanding [18]. Furthermore, ensuring consistent energy harvesting output under real-world dynamic conditions and developing efficient power management systems require continued innovation.
This review presents a critical analysis of recent advances in electrospun nanofiber-based electronic skins, with a specific focus on the synergistic integration of sensing and energy harvesting for autonomous wearable systems (Fig. 1B). Unlike previous works that often treat these functions in isolation, we emphasize their convergence within unified nanofiber architectures. We begin by detailing the fundamental properties and fabrication techniques that make electrospun nanofibers ideal for e-skin. The core of the review systematically benchmarks sensing mechanisms (piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric) and energy harvesting technologies (PENGs, TENGs, supercapacitors), supported by comparative performance tables. We then explore transformative applications in healthcare, human-machine interfaces, and environmental monitoring. Finally, we provide a forward-looking perspective that critically addresses persistent commercialization barriers such as manufacturing scalability, power management, and material trade-offs and discusses the integration of artificial intelligence for next-generation intelligent e-skin platforms. By bridging material innovation with practical implementation, this work aims to provide a strategic framework for developing energy-autonomous, scalable, and commercially viable e-skin systems.
2 Key properties of nanofiber-based e-skin
Electrospun nanofibers have become a cornerstone in next-generation e-skin due to their exceptional mechanical compliance, high surface-area-to-volume ratio, and tunable porosity. Electrospinning can produce continuous, uniform fibers from a wide range of polymers and composites, yielding lightweight, flexible, and inherently breathable mats that closely mimic the permeability of natural skin. This architecture supports efficient air and moisture exchange, improving comfort and reducing irritation during long-term wear. Electrospun webs often surpass cotton in air permeability, underscoring their potential in biomedical applications.
Representative properties and application of e-skin. A) Overview of nanofiber-based E-skins, highlighting their key properties and sensing applications. B) Schematic overview of electrospun nanofiber-based electronic skins. The illustration highlights key characteristics of electrospun nanofibers and their diverse applications in self-powered electronic skin systems.
These multifaceted properties including potential for high biocompatibility, ultra-thinness, inherent flexibility, and self-powering capability, position nanofiber e-skins as a unique platform for advanced healthcare and HMI applications, as summarized in (Fig. 1A). Beyond comfort, nanofiber e-skins can be engineered for high sensitivity and multifunctionality. Conductive fillers such as CNTs [19], metallic nanowires [20], or graphene integrated into elastic polymer matrices like polyaniline or polyurethane maintain stable electrical performance under large deformations [21]. Structural innovations like coiled fibers, helical yarns, and layered hybrids can achieve extreme stretchability, with some designs tolerating strains over 1700% [22, 23]. However, when evaluating the mechanical performance of e-skins, it is critical to note that the literature often lacks standardized testing protocols. Parameters such as cycle rate, environmental humidity, and the exact definition of ‘failure’ vary significantly between studies, making direct comparison of reported durability and stretchability challenging. The community would benefit from establishing consistent standards for testing under conditions that mimic real-world wearable use to better assess long-term reliability [24]. Standardized testing is needed to reliably assess long-term durability for wearable applications. These attributes allow e-skins to conform naturally to body motion while reliably detecting strain, pressure, temperature, and biochemical signals.
2.1 Flexibility & stretchability
Flexibility and are critical for seamless integration with soft, curved, and dynamic body surfaces [3, 25]. Electrospun nanofibers offer tunable architectures compatible with stretchable polymers such as PU [26, 27] TPEs [28], and PDMS [29,30,31], often achieving elongations >1000%. Embedding conductive fillers e.g., CNTs, graphene, AgNWs produces conductive, stretchable networks. For example, Wu et al. fabricated a rib 2 × 2 core–shell nanofiber yarn sensor with 100% stretchability and high pressure sensitivity (Fig. 2A) [32]. Intrinsically conductive polymers (PEDOT: PSS, PANI) add conductivity, elasticity, and features like self-healing [33,34,35].
E-skin nanofibers key properties. A) Schematic diagram of E-skin flexible nanofibers, Preparation and mechanism of pressure sensing, anti-strain interference (III), human arm intelligent keyboard, human health monitoring). Reproduced with permission [32]. B) CNTs/PU nanofibers composite yarn with ultrahigh stretchability and good electrical property. Reproduced with permission [27]. C) Schematic illustration and fabrication of ultra-thin PNCN. Reproduced with permission [36]. D) (a) Schematic illustration of PZ-PBNF membranes, Human skin model, Air permeability of the fiber membrane. Reproduced with permission [37].
Structural engineering further enhances stretchability. Designs such as serpentine, helical, wavy, origami, kirigami, and woven patterns redistribute stress, enabling large deformations. Lin et al. reported a polyimide/copper serpentine-helix hybrid achieving >200% multidirectional stretch via combined vertical buckling and helical extension [38]. Gao et al. created a helical CNT/PU yarn sensor with ~1700% elongation while preserving function (Fig. 2B) [27]. Kirigami cuts convert in-plane strain to out-of-plane motion, while conductive textile platforms offer scalable, breathable substrates for wearable electronics.
2.2 Ultra-thinness and breathability
Ultra-thin devices minimize mechanical interference and enhance conformability. Electrospun fibers with sub-micron diameters can form films only a few micrometers thick, enabling intimate skin contact. Li’s group developed a patterned TPU/AgNW strain sensor ~10 μm thick with high stretchability and accurate signal detection under motion [36].
Porosity in nanofiber mats naturally promotes gas and vapor transmission, preventing sweat accumulation and skin discomfort. Breathable designs include cellulose derivatives, TPU, and biodegradable polyesters. Yang et al. created a dual-layer nanofiber TENG with a hierarchical pore network, achieving 11.5 mm s⁻¹ gas permeability and strong energy output [39]. Zhang’s bilayer PVDF/ZnO–PAN/BTO sensor enabled directional sweat transport with stable performance (Fig. 2D) [37]. Li’s all-fiber e-skin maintained pressure sensitivity 0.18 V kPa⁻¹, 0–175 kPa under 50% strain and exhibited excellent vapor permeability 10.26 kg m⁻² d⁻¹ [40]. Fabric-based capacitive sensors have also demonstrated high moisture transmission 50 g h⁻¹ m⁻² for skin-friendly wearables [41].
2.3 Self-healing & biocompatibility
Integrating self-healing functions into e-skins addresses the challenge of mechanical damage from repeated stretching, bending, and environmental stress. Inspired by biological skin repair, researchers have developed polymer matrices capable of restoring mechanical and electrical performance via reversible interactions such as hydrogen bonding, Diels–Alder reactions, and host–guest complexes [42, 43]. Guo’s group demonstrated hydrogen-bonded nanofiber networks that autonomously recovered structural and conductive integrity under ambient conditions [44]. Pan et al. created a flexible bionic ionic skin (TEHPU) reinforced with PU nanofibers, achieving high stretchability, crack resistance, and rapid repair (Fig. 3A) [45]. Similarly, Liu’s nanofiber-reinforced elastomer showed an 836% increase in tensile strength, ~95% transparency, and autonomous damage recovery via Joule heating [46].
Advances in this field have improved repair speed and environmental resilience. Zhang’s copolymer of α-thioctic acid and butyl acrylate achieved near-instant recovery under heat or mild pressure through combined hydrogen and disulfide bonding [47]. Self-healing in wet environments has also been achieved via trivalent aluminum ion coordination [48] and fluorinated elastomers with ionic liquids, enabling repair in seawater or extreme pH. Such strategies extend device lifespan, reliability, and safety, enabling robust nanofiber-based e-skins for dynamic, real-world use.
Biocompatibility is equally critical for long-term skin contact or implantable applications. Naturally derived polymers such as chitosan, gelatin, alginate [49, 50], silk fibroin [51, 52], and cellulose [53], as well as biodegradable synthetics like PLA [54], offer mechanical softness, elasticity, and low immunogenicity [55,56,57]. However, it is a misconception that all nanofibers are inherently biocompatible; this property is highly dependent on the base polymer, solvents used, and any functional additives.
A significant trade-off exists between achieving high biocompatibility and ensuring robust, long-term electrical conductivity. Naturally derived polymers (e.g., chitosan, gelatin) offer excellent biocompatibility but are typically electrical insulators [58]. Conversely, the highly conductive fillers e.g., CNTs, metallic nanowires required for sensitive sensing raise concerns about long-term biological safety, such as potential inflammation or cytotoxicity. Strategies to mitigate this conflict include using ultra-thin, bio-inert coatings on conductive fillers, employing lower concentrations of highly conductive materials, and developing intrinsically conductive yet biodegradable polymers such as specialized PEDOT: PSS formulations [59].
Biodegradability is increasingly valued for transient devices that safely disintegrate into non-toxic by-products, eliminating surgical removal and reducing environmental impact [60]. Examples include chitosan–AuNW triboelectric e-skins and bioresorbable metals like mg, Fe for transient electronics [61, 62]. Peng’s PLGA/PVA–AgNW nanofiber e-skin combined breathability, biodegradability, antibacterial properties, and self-powered sensing (Fig. 3B) [63]. However, a critical challenge remains the long-term mechanical robustness of these biodegradable polymers e.g., PLA, PCL compared to more durable synthetics, which can limit their use in applications requiring sustained operation. Together, self-healing and biocompatibility strategies are paving the way for durable, safe, and sustainable wearable systems.
E-skin nanofibers key properties. A) Composition of TEHPU showing distribution of PTA, HA, PU, and IL, with schematic of self-healing in the ionogel–PU nanofiber matrix. Reproduced with permission [45]. B) Breathable, biodegradable, and antibacterial e-skin conformally attached to the epidermis; schematic of all-nanofiber TENG–based e-skin with water contact angle and molecular structures of PLGA and PVA. Reproduced with permission [63]. C) CS wound dressing: photograph before/after 60 N load; i) unidirectional liquid transport; j) thickness-dependent pressure response; k) cycling at 250 Pa; l) stability under 2.5 kPa. Reproduced with permission [64]. D) SAMPC: schematic of surface microstructure evolution in PU nanofiber and multifunctional applications of the conductive, superhydrophobic network. Reproduced with permission [65].
2.4 Sensing mechanisms
Nanofiber based e-skins can detect diverse stimuli (pressure, strain, temperature, humidity, biochemical markers) through tailored composition, structure, and functionalization. Incorporating nanomaterials such as silver nanoparticles [66], CNT [67], MXenes [68, 69] and piezoelectric ceramics [70, 71] enhances surface interactions and facilitates efficient transduction. The incorporation of high-aspect-ratio 2D materials like MXenes and graphene, however, presents processing challenges such as achieving dispersion uniformity, preventing nozzle clogging during electrospinning, and maintaining fiber structural integrity at high filler loadings.
The high surface area and interconnected porosity of nanofibers enable rapid, sensitive responses, as demonstrated by Ding’s MXene@SA/PLA humidity sensor 99% sensitivity, 0.6 s response and capacitive pressure sensor (199.22 kPa⁻¹) for wound monitoring (Fig. 3C) [64]. Key performance parameters such as sensitivity, detection limit, response time, linearity, and durability are largely dictated by the choice of conductive fillers, fiber morphology, and structural design.
Three primary transduction modes dominate e-skin design [72,73,74,75]. Piezoresistive sensing: mechanical deformation changes resistance in conductive networks, offering high sensitivity and simple readout but potential hysteresis [76, 77].]. Ionically conductive hydrogels with 3D porous nanofiber supports have shown fast responses (~61 ms) and broad strain detection. Capacitive sensing: deformation alters the capacitance between electrodes separated by a dielectric, yielding good linearity and low hysteresis [78,79,80]. Microstructured dielectrics, such as porous foams with ionic liquids, have reached sensitivities up to 9280 kPa⁻¹, enabling detection of subtle cues like airflow or heartbeat [81]. Piezoelectric sensing: transforms mechanical stimuli into voltage outputs, offering flexible and self-powered platforms ideal for real-time health monitoring and interactive e-skin electronics (Fig. 3D) [65]. PVDF remains the most widely used flexible piezoelectric polymer [82, 83], with electrospinning and biopolymer blending enhancing β-phase content and dipole alignment. Core–shell silk fibroin/PVDF nanofibers have produced voltages of 16.5 V over six times higher than pure PVDF demonstrating potential for sensitive, biocompatible biomedical devices [84].
By leveraging these mechanisms individually or in hybrid configurations, nanofiber e-skins can achieve multimodal, high-performance sensing tailored to specific wearable applications. A key consideration in multimodal systems is the development of signal processing techniques to efficiently decouple and interpret signals from distinct sensing modalities, such as in bimodal tactile perceptron’s that combine capacitive and triboelectric sensing.
2.5 Convergence of sensing and energy harvesting
A persistent challenge in wearable electronics is ensuring continuous, reliable operation without bulky external power supplies. Recent research addresses this by integrating energy harvesting and storage directly into e-skin platforms, enabling autonomous, self-powered systems. Nanofiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators TENGs [15, 30, 85] and piezoelectric nanogenerators PENGs [86] effectively convert biomechanical motions such as joint bending, skin deformation, and walking into electrical energy, removing the need for conventional batteries. Complementary nanofiber-enabled supercapacitors and flexible batteries provide compact, stretchable energy storage that can be seamlessly combined with sensing modules [87]. A critical limitation, however, is that these self-powered mechanisms often generate inconsistent outputs under real-world, dynamic conditions. Strategies beyond hybrid systems such as sophisticated power management circuits with maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and efficient energy buffering are essential to stabilize this variability and ensure continuous operation.
Electrospun nanofibers are uniquely suited for such convergence. Their ultrathin, porous, and breathable structures conform intimately to skin, maintaining comfort while supporting mechanical robustness and biocompatibility. High surface area, hierarchical porosity, and tunable compositions allow direct integration of sensing elements with energy harvesting units in unified multifunctional platforms. In addition to TENGs and PENGs, nanofiber-based thermoelectric generators TEGs can utilize skin temperature gradients to power biosensors and tactile systems, enabling continuous health monitoring without external energy inputs [88,89,90].
Performance can be further enhanced through advanced materials MXenes, conductive polymers, and two-dimensional 2D semiconductors embedded within nanofiber matrices. These not only improve sensor sensitivity but also increase energy conversion efficiency, paving the way for adaptive, intelligent e-skin systems that are energy-autonomous, multifunctional, and suitable for applications in wearable healthcare, soft robotics, human–machine interfaces, and AI-assisted diagnostics [91, 92]. By merging sensing with sustainable energy generation, nanofiber-based architectures overcome the limitations of traditional flexible electronics and establish the foundation for next-generation self-sufficient wearable technologies.
3 Fabrication of nanofibers for e-skin
3.1 Electrospinning fundamentals: principles and techniques
Electrospinning is a versatile and widely adopted technique for fabricating nanofibers, particularly suited for flexible e-skin platforms due to its ability to produce fibers with high surface-area-to-volume ratios, tunable porosity, and mechanical flexibility that mimics the extracellular matrix [93,94,95]. The process involves applying a high voltage to a polymer solution, forming a Taylor cone from which a charged jet is ejected toward a grounded collector. The resulting fiber morphology and uniformity are dictated by key parameters such as voltage, flow rate, tip-to-collector distance, and polymer concentration (Fig. 4A) [96].
While often described as scalable, conventional single-needle electrospinning is hampered by low throughput, presenting a critical barrier to commercialization. Significant advancements have been made to address this, primarily through multi-needle arrays and, more effectively, needleless electrospinning systems [97]. These latter systems generate multiple jets from an open liquid surface or rotating spinnerets, dramatically increasing production rates and making roll-to-roll processing feasible for industrial-scale manufacturing [98].
Advanced electrospinning variants further expand its capabilities: coaxial electrospinning produces core–shell fibers for encapsulating functional materials [99, 100], near-field electrospinning enables microscale patterning for sensor arrays [101], and field-assisted spinning aligns fibers for anisotropic mechanical or sensing properties [102]. However, a critical trade-off exists; these advanced techniques often sacrifice throughput for precision, or vice-versa, highlighting that the choice of electrospinning method is highly application-dependent.
3.2 Tuning nanofiber properties: composition, morphology, and alignment
The performance of electrospun nanofibers in e-skin is critically dependent on material composition, morphology, and alignment. A wide range of polymers can be used, from synthetic (e.g., PU for elasticity, PVDF for piezoelectricity) to natural (e.g., chitosan, gelatin for biocompatibility). The incorporation of conductive fillers like CNTs, graphene, and MXenes is essential for creating sensitive, electrically active networks [11].
However, integrating a high loading percentage of 2D nanomaterials like MXenes and graphene presents distinct challenges. These include: Dispersion Uniformity: Nanoparticles tend to agglomerate in polymer solutions, leading to defective fibers and inconsistent performance. Solution Clogging: High-viscosity solutions or filler agglomerates can clog the spinneret, disrupting the electrospinning process. Compromised Mechanical Integrity: Excessive filler loading can embrittle the nanofibers, reducing their flexibility and stretchability. Strategies to mitigate these issues involve surface functionalization of the fillers, the use of surfactants, and optimization of solvent systems to achieve a stable, homogeneous dispersion without significantly altering the solution’s electrospinnability [103, 104].
Process parameters and ambient conditions (e.g., humidity, temperature) also profoundly influence fiber diameter, porosity, and surface texture [105], high flow rates risk incomplete solvent evaporation [106, 107]. Furthermore, fiber alignment—achieved via rotating collectors [108], or external fields [109]. imparts anisotropic electrical and mechanical responses, which is highly beneficial for directional strain sensing.
Fabrication and modification strategies for nanofiber-based e-skin. (A–B) Core fabrication methods A) Electrospinning setup and parameters. B) 3D printing approach, and Bio-fabrication route. (C–E) Structural designs for multifunctionality: C) Aligned Structure. Reproduced with permission [110] and D) Hollow Structure. Reproduced with permission [111]. E). Core-Shell Structure. Reproduced with permission [112]. F) Surface functionalization: schematic showing chemical modification for improved conductivity and biocompatibility.
3.3 Alternative methods and comparative analysis
While electrospinning dominates, complementary fabrication methods offer unique advantages in precision, scalability, and functional integration (Fig. 4B; Table 1).
3D printing: Techniques like direct ink writing (DIW) and inkjet printing enable the fabrication of multilayer, multi-material e-skins with spatially tuned properties [113, 114]. Hybrid approaches, such as combining electrospinning with digital light processing (DLP), allow for the integration of patterned nanofiber networks within 3D-printed structures for programmable performance [115, 116]. Self-assembly: This bottom-up approach, leveraging molecular interactions, can produce highly uniform nanostructured films. Layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition is notable for creating large-area, reproducible sensing films [117, 118] though scalability can be a limitation. Bio-fabrication: This frontier area involves incorporating living cells into nanofiber matrices, creating biologically active e-skins for tissue regeneration and advanced biosensing [119,120,121]. Nanomaterial-reinforced bio-inks containing CNTs or graphene in hydrogels create biohybrid e-skins capable of sensing and therapeutic functions [122, 123].
3.4 Structural designs
Structural engineering is pivotal for enhancing the sensing performance and mechanical robustness of e-skins. Common architectures include aligned fibers for directional sensing [110], core-shell configurations for protecting functional elements [124], hollow fibers for low-modulus sensitivity [125], and hierarchical networks that mimic skin’s multilayered architecture [126], each tailored to specific performance needs. Aligned fibers impart anisotropic mechanical and electrical responses, improving directional strain sensing, while core–shell designs protect functional layers from environmental stressors, extending device lifespan. Hierarchical fiber networks mimic the multilayered architecture of skin, balancing elasticity, toughness, and multimodal sensing for versatile wearable platforms [127, 128].
Li et al. fabricated a multidirectional strain sensor by depositing Ag NWs/CNT ink onto aligned TPU electrospun mats, achieving high sensitivity gauge factor = 244.3, fast response, and visual strain mapping for complex motion monitoring (Fig. 4C) [110]. Ma et al. developed coaxially electrospun core–shell fibers with a PEG core and PU/Si₃N₄ shell for thermal management, achieving high solar reflectance, thermal conductivity, and IR emissivity for effective on-skin cooling in hot, humid conditions (Fig. 4E) [112].
Zhang et al. fabricated hollow TPU fibers with graphitic flake coatings, enabling low-modulus, high-sensitivity strain sensing for precise soft actuator deformation monitoring (Fig. 4D) [111].
3.5 Advanced functionalization and surface modification
Advanced surface modification and functionalization are critical for optimizing nanofiber-based E-skin systems, enabling enhanced conductivity, wettability, biocompatibility, and tailored chemical or biological responsiveness (Fig. 4F) [129,130,131,132].
Chemical surface treatments such as plasma activation [133, 134], UV/ozone exposure, and salinization [135] modify surface energy, introduce reactive groups, and improve interfacial bonding. Plasma treatment, for example, enhances hydrophilicity and facilitates nanoparticle or biomolecule conjugation, while silane coupling agents enable covalent immobilization of functional moieties or metallic layers, boosting structural stability and surface reactivity [135, 136].
Coating and doping approaches further elevate electrical and electrochemical performance. Metallic coatings like Ag, Au enhance conductivity and provide electromagnetic interference EMI shielding for stable signal transmission [137]. Conductive polymers such as PEDOT: PSS and polyaniline PANI impart flexibility and tunable conductivity, supporting applications in strain, pressure, and biochemical sensing [138, 139]. Ionic doping with Li⁺ or Na⁺ improves ionic conductivity, which is particularly valuable for electrolyte-based sensors requiring rapid response [140].
Biofunctionalization is essential for specific and real-time biochemical detection [141, 142]. Immobilizing recognition elements such as enzymes, antibodies, or DNA aptamers [143] enables the detection of biomarkers like glucose, lactate, cytokines, and electrolytes from sweat or interstitial fluid. For real-world application in dynamic, complex biofluids like sweat or interstitial fluid, ensuring specificity and minimizing cross-reactivity is a major challenge. Non-specific binding of interfering molecules can lead to signal drift and false positives. Strategies to enhance reliability include the use of protective nanoporous membranes that filter out large interferents, the implementation of built-in reference sensors for differential measurement, and the development of multi-aptamer arrays that provide redundant validation for a single target [144]. For example, glucose oxidase-functionalized nanofibers allow non-invasive glucose monitoring, while aptamer-modified surfaces provide high-affinity molecular recognition. These bioengineered interfaces extend E-skin capabilities to continuous health monitoring and point-of-care diagnostics [145].
4 Sensing, energy harvesting, and integrated power systems
4.1 Sensing mechanisms and performance benchmarking
Nanofiber-based sensing platforms are attracting increasing attention for wearable, biomedical, and soft robotic applications due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, tunable porosity, and mechanical flexibility. These features improve sensor sensitivity, responsiveness, and conformability compared to rigid counterparts. In e-skin systems, nanofibers enable multimodal sensing like tactile, thermal, humidity, and biochemical by providing lightweight, breathable, and skin-conformal interfaces [142, 146, 147].
4.2 Tactile and mechanical sensors
Tactile sensors mimic human skin’s ability to detect pressure, strain, and shear, transducing mechanical deformation into electrical signals via piezoresistive, capacitive, and piezoelectric mechanisms [148]. The high surface area and flexibility of electrospun fiber networks are key advantages over conventional rigid sensors.
Recent designs combine these material advances with structural innovations. For example, Zhu et al.’s breathable nanofiber triboelectric array with deep learning algorithms distinguished similar materials with 97.9% accuracy in varied environments (Fig. 5A) [149], and Li et al.’s core/shell PVDF/dopamine nanofibers achieved strong β-phase alignment for detecting subtle physiological signals such as blood pulses and diaphragm movements [150]. Other approaches include carbonized polyacrylonitrile nanofibers in PDMS for prosthetic tactile feedback [151] and low-cost polystyrene-based pressure sensors capable of actuating robotic arms [152].
A significant challenge in such integrated bimodal or multimodal systems is the real-time decoupling and interpretation of signals originating from distinct physical mechanisms (e.g., capacitive touch vs. triboelectric sliding). This often necessitates the use of advanced machine learning algorithms, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) or recurrent neural networks (RNNs), which can be trained to recognize and separate the unique signal fingerprints of each stimulus, thereby enabling accurate, cross-talk-free perception [153, 154].
Sensing mechanisms of nanofiber-based e-skin. (A–C) Mechanical sensing: A) tactile, pressure, and strain sensor Reproduced with permission [149], using piezoresistive. Reproduced with permission [155] and capacitive mechanisms. Reproduced with permission [156]. (D–E) Thermal sensing: temperature and optical [157]/thermochromic nanofiber platforms. Reproduced with permission [158]. (F) Humidity sensing: BST nanofiber-based moisture sensor with fast response. Reproduced with permission [159]
4.2.1 Pressure/strain sensors (piezoresistive, capacitive)
Piezoresistive Sensors operate on the principle of resistance change (R = ρL/S) due to mechanical deformation, where R denotes resistance, ρ is the resistivity, L is the length, and S is the cross-sectional area of the conductive pathway [160]. Conductive networks of CNTs, graphene, MXenes [161, 162], or conductive polymers PANI, PEDOT: PSS embedded in elastomers such as PU, PDMS, or PCL [163] produce measurable resistance shifts under stress. When subjected to stress, microstructural rearrangements alter the contact between conductive fillers, producing measurable resistance variations. Yang’s work on piezoresistive pressure sensors (Fig. 5B) demonstrates excellent wearability, sensitivity, and scalability, supporting applications in healthcare, fitness monitoring [155]. The simplicity of design, combined with high responsiveness, makes these sensors particularly suitable for wearable technologies.
Hierarchical structures, such as microcrack networks, amplify sensitivity. Zhou’s CNT-coated pre-stretched TPU nanofiber strain sensor achieved a gauge factor of 83,982.8 at 220–300% strain with ~70 ms response over 10,000 cycles [164]. MXene/CNT hybrids extended strain ranges to 330% with gauge factors of 2911 [165], while anisotropic TPU/carbon nanofiber sensors offered direction-specific detection and waterproofing for bio-integrated devices [166]. Metallic nanowire–graphene hybrids yielded ultrathin sensors with 134 kPa⁻¹ sensitivity and 3.7 Pa detection limits [167], and Ag-coated PU nanofibers maintained 60 ms response over 10,000 cycles [168].
Capacitive Sensors detect deformation-induced changes in capacitance (C = ε₀εr S/d) [169], where ε0 is vacuum permittivity, εr is the dielectric constant, S is the electrode area, and d is the separation between electrodes. Mechanical deformation alters these parameters, generating measurable capacitance shifts. Electrospun nanofiber mats, with high porosity, flexibility, and large surface-to-volume ratio, serve as ideal dielectric layers, offering low power consumption, minimal hysteresis, and long-term stability for wearable and e-skin applications [170,171,172].
Xia et al. developed a polyimide nanofiber capacitive sensor with spiked Ni particles, achieving 30 ms response, 1.5 MPa range, and stability over 1000 cycles (Fig. 5C) [156]. Typical sandwich structures place a porous dielectric between flexible electrodes for deformation-induced capacitance changes. Kim’s et al. fabricated P(VDF-TrFE) nanofiber sensor showed 2.81 kPa⁻¹ sensitivity < 0.12 kPa, 42 ms response, and low hysteresis [173]. Li’s micro-patterned TPU nanofiber dielectric reached 0.28 kPa⁻¹ sensitivity, 65 ms response, and enabled high-resolution 4 × 4 pressure mapping [174].
Beyond planar formats, Choi’s PVDF nanofiber-coated Cu yarn detected torsional strain [175], while iontronic designs leveraging electric double-layer capacitance EDLC improved sensitivity. Cui’s ionic liquid-infused TPU nanofiber sensor with AgNW electrodes achieved 6.21 kPa⁻¹ sensitivity, 170/135 ms response/recovery, and >6000-cycle durability [176]. With tunable structures, mechanical compliance, and stability, porous and iontronic nanofiber capacitive sensors show strong potential for e-skin, soft robotics, and biomedical monitoring [177, 178].
Ye et al. introduced a bimodal multifunctional tactile perceptron combining capacitive and triboelectric sensors for contactless gesture recognition and material identification with high accuracy. Utilizing an energy complementarity strategy and symmetrical sensor distribution, the system achieved low power consumption, minimized signal interference, and demonstrated excellent performance in smart tactile sensing applications [188]. A critical challenge in these multimodal systems is the efficient decoupling and interpretation of signals from distinct physical mechanisms, which often requires sophisticated machine learning algorithms or carefully designed sensor architectures to minimize cross-talk. Despite substantial progress, challenges remain in optimizing the figure of merit, particularly under high-strain conditions.
4.2.2 Thermal, humidity, and optical sensors
4.2.2.1 Temperature sensors
Temperature is a vital physiological and environmental parameter, and accurate monitoring is crucial for applications ranging from wearable healthcare diagnostics to industrial safety. Traditional devices such as resistance temperature detectors RTDs, thermistors, and thermocouples rely on the variation of electrical resistance or potential with temperature [189]. However, these rigid and semiconductor-based systems often suffer from high power consumption, limited flexibility, and poor adaptability to continuous, skin-conformal monitoring.
Electrospun nanofiber-based temperature sensors address these limitations by offering lightweight, flexible, and multifunctional platforms. For example, electrospun PAN-derived carbon nanofibers CNFs have been utilized to fabricate resistive temperature sensors capable of real-time thermal monitoring with additional responsiveness to pressure, bending, and humidity stimuli [190]. Such multifunctionality was previously unachievable with many conventional carbon-based sensors. Beyond contact-based detection, nanofiber platforms also enable non-contact thermal monitoring through fluorescence-based mechanisms. The fluorescence intensity ratio FIR technique employs rare-earth doped materials, where emission spectra shift in response to temperature. Er³⁺/Yb³⁺-doped NaYF₄ NYF microcrystals, synthesized via hydrothermal methods and embedded in electrospun PAN fibers, demonstrated stable green light emission under thermal stimulation. These NYF-EY/PAN composite fibers showed high sensitivity and environmental stability, enabling non-invasive temperature monitoring even in challenging conditions such as high-voltage fields or within biological tissues, without perturbing the native thermal field (Fig. 5D) [157].
4.2.2.2 Optical and thermal sensor
In addition to conventional temperature detection, electrospun nanofibers have been applied for optical and thermochromic sensing, broadening their functional capabilities. Ultraviolet UV sensors fabricated from PVDF-TrFE/ZnO nanofiber membranes exhibited high UV sensitivity due to the large surface area and porous architecture of the electrospun fibers [191]. Sensitivity increased proportionally with membrane thickness, as reflected in sheet resistance ratios, making them suitable for wearable UV detection and environmental monitoring.
Thermochromic nanofiber sensors have also gained attention for visual and responsive temperature readouts. An example is dye-doped electrospun PAN nanofibers, where the dye molecules were uniformly dispersed within the porous structure, achieving 10–30 (Fig. 5E) times higher optical transmittance compared to conventional thin-film membranes [158]. This structural advantage resulted in 2–5× higher thermochromic sensitivity across the physiologically relevant range of 31.6–42.7 °C. Such sensors can be applied for wearable thermal mapping, fever detection, and smart textiles. Together, these innovations demonstrate how nanofiber-based e-skins extend beyond conventional resistive thermistors, enabling both electrical and optical modalities for real-time, sensitive, and multimodal thermal monitoring.
4.2.3 Humidity & moisture sensing
Humidity is a critical parameter across diverse industrial and biomedical fields, including pharmaceuticals, textiles, food preservation, agriculture, and environmental monitoring. Fluctuations in humidity can adversely affect product quality, storage conditions, and even physiological health, making accurate and continuous monitoring essential [192]. Humidity sensors are generally classified into electronic resistive and capacitive, optical, and acoustic sensors. Among these, membrane-based electronic sensors have become the most widely adopted due to their low power consumption, high sensitivity, rapid response/recovery times, and superior operational stability compared to their optical and acoustic counterparts.
Electrospun nanofibers have significantly advanced humidity sensing by providing large surface area, high porosity, and tunable nanostructures, which promote efficient adsorption and desorption of water molecules, thereby enhancing sensitivity and response times. For instance, composite nanofibers fabricated from poly(ethylene oxide) PEO, CuO, and multiwalled carbon nanotubes MWCNTs through electrospinning demonstrated high sensitivity, robust stability, and excellent resistive/capacitive responses to ambient humidity, offering a low-cost and flexible platform suitable for wearable and industrial applications [193]. The introduction of uniaxial nanofiber arrays has further improved sensing accuracy due to their anisotropic properties. A notable example is a sensor constructed from Ba₀.₈Sr₀.₂TiO₃ (BST) nanofibers, prepared via electrospinning followed by annealing, which exhibited a faster response time 4.5 s quicker than disordered BST nanofiber sensors (Fig. 5F) [159].
Additionally, 3D porous nanofiber architectures enhance water vapor diffusion and adsorption kinetics, yielding faster and more reliable sensing. For example, electrospun Nafion/MWCNT nanofiber networks with a 3D porous structure displayed excellent linearity R² >0.98 across a relative humidity range of 10–80%, with ultrafast response times of ~3 s and high detection accuracy 0.5% RH [194]. These developments highlight the superiority of nanofiber-based humidity sensors over conventional designs, making them highly promising for integration into wearable electronics, smart textiles, and industrial monitoring systems.
4.3 Self-powered sensing and energy harvesting
A pivotal advancement in e-skin is the move towards self-powered systems. However, a critical challenge is that ambient energy harvesters often generate inconsistent and pulsed outputs under real-world, dynamic conditions, which are insufficient to directly power most commercial electronics Table 2.
4.3.1 Piezoelectric (PENGs)
PENGs exploit the piezoelectric effect, where mechanical deformation compression, stretching, or bending induces electrical polarization in specific materials. PVDF and its copolymers, particularly P(VDF-TrFE), are widely adopted due to their strong piezoelectric response, flexibility, and biocompatibility. Output performance can be further improved through the incorporation of inorganic fillers such as zinc oxide ZnO nanowires, barium titanate BaTiO₃, and lead zirconate titanate PZT, although the latter’s use is restricted by toxicity concerns.
Electrospun nanofibers are particularly advantageous for PENG fabrication, offering high surface-area-to-volume ratios and the potential for molecular alignment to enhance dipole orientation. For example, aligned PVDF nanofibers embedded in polydimethylsiloxane PDMS generated ~ 20 V under finger tapping sufficient to power low-consumption electronics and biosensors [195, 196]. Further improvements have been achieved by embedding conductive or dielectric nanomaterials to increase interfacial polarization and electromechanical conversion.
Recent advancements have explored the integration of conductive or dielectric nanomaterials into piezoelectric fibers to boost interfacial polarization and improve electromechanical conversion efficiency. Kim et al. developed transparent, flexible PENGs using BaTiO₃-embedded P(VDF-TrFE) nanofibers with Ni-plated microfiber electrodes, achieving a piezoelectric coefficient (d₃₃) of 21.2 pC/N and an output of up to 240 V/MPa, with optical transparency exceeding 86% (Fig. 6A) [181].Zhao research [182] incorporated MXene into PVDF nanofibers, improving voltage sensitivity to 0.0480 V N⁻¹ with a rapid 3.1 ms response. Similarly, Li et al. [197] enhanced β-phase crystallinity in PVDF nanofibers using AgNO₃, FeCl₃·6 H₂O, and graphene doping, obtaining peak voltages of 1.8 V. Xu et al. [198] reported a P(VDF-TrFE)/Pdop/BaTiO₃ hybrid nanocomposite yielding 6 V and 1.5 µA, illustrating the potential of multi-component designs. While output voltages can be high, the current and power density often remain low, necessitating efficient power management for practical use.
E-skin nanofibers self-powered energy system. A) a Schematic of the fabrication process for all-NF-PENG. Illustrations of b the all-NF-PENG structure, its working principle as an energy harvester, and c its potential applications as a wearable self-powered electronic device. Reproduced with permission [181]. B) Schematic diagram of the core − shell CIC@HFP NFs and its application. (a) The fabrication of CIC@HFP NFs and its application for biomechanical energy harvesting. (b) Schematic mutual interaction of the Cs2InCl5(H2O) and PVDF-HFP chain. Reproduced with permission [183]. C) Illustrations of Hybrid Systems (Thermoelectric/PV Integration).
4.3.2 Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs)
TENGs generate electricity through contact electrification and electrostatic induction when two materials with different electron affinities repeatedly contact and separate. They can operate in vertical contact–separation, lateral sliding, single-electrode, or freestanding modes. Electrospun nanofibers enhance TENG performance by providing high porosity, tunable morphology, and the ability to embed functional fillers [199].
Polymers such as nylon, polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE, and PDMS serve as triboelectric layers, often paired with conductive fillers like carbon nanotubes CNTs or silver nanowires AgNWs as electrodes. Optimized TENGs can produce several hundred volts and current densities exceeding 10 µA/cm². For instance, CNT-doped polyurethane PU nanofibers powered 30 LEDs from a simple hand clap [200, 201].
Zhi and his colleague fabricated core–shell Cs₂InCl₅(H₂O)@PVDF-HFP nanofibers via single-step electrospinning, achieving 681 V, 53.1 µA, and a peak power density of 6.94 W/m² (Fig. 6B) [183]. Cao et al. designed breathable nanofiber TENG membranes with silver electrodes, achieving a gas permeability of 6.16 mm/s, suitable for medical sensors [202]. Meanwhile, Phan et al. developed an aeroelastic flutter TENG using PVC nanofibers and aluminum foil, enabling airflow-driven energy harvesting [184]. Xing et al. created all-yarn TENGs with silica aerogel/polyimide core–shell structures, delivering 30 nC/cm² charge density, 0.17 mW power, and sub-15 ms response times [203]. Zhang et al. [185] produced PVDF/TPU/PVA micro-pyramid arrays via electrospinning self-assembly, achieving 19 kPa⁻¹ pressure sensitivity, a detection limit of 0.05 Pa, and 105.1 µC/m² triboelectric output. The primary limitations of TENGs include their inherently high impedance and significant performance degradation under high humidity.
4.3.3 Hybrid systems (thermoelectric/PV integration)
To overcome the intermittency of mechanical energy, hybrid harvesting systems combine nanogenerators with thermoelectric or photovoltaic PV modules, ensuring stable and continuous power delivery for e-skin devices (Fig. 6C). These systems synergize complementary energy harvesting methods such as thermoelectric and photovoltaic PV technologies with nanogenerator-based platforms like PENGs and TENGs, ensuring a more stable and continuous energy supply, especially for wearable and portable electronics. Electrospun nanofibers play a central role in these systems by serving as both active and supporting matrices due to their flexibility, high surface area, and ability to incorporate diverse functional nanomaterials [204].
Thermoelectric hybridization
TEGs utilize the Seebeck effect to convert temperature gradients into electricity, making them effective for body-heat harvesting. Electrospun fibers embedded with thermoelectric materials such as bismuth telluride Bi₂Te₃ [205], antimony telluride Sb₂Te₃, or MXene [206, 207] have achieved Seebeck coefficients of ~200 µV/K, powering low-energy biosensors. A Bi₂Te₃ nanofiber fabric patch generated ~1 µW/cm² from human body heat during daily activities, illustrating its potential for textile integration [208].
Photovoltaic integration
Flexible PV modules, especially organic and perovskite solar cells, can be integrated into e-skin to capture light energy. Doping electrospun fibers with quantum dots or organic dyes enhances light absorption without compromising flexibility. Conductive fiber-based electrodes, such as AgNW or graphene-coated nanofibers, further improve PV efficiency [209]. A recent design combined a TENG with perovskite PV cells, allowing automatic switching between mechanical and solar energy harvesting to maintain uninterrupted operation [210]. The key challenge in hybridization is the increased system complexity and the need for more sophisticated power management to intelligently allocate energy from multiple, variable sources.
4.4 Energy storage for sustainable operation
While energy harvesting provides intermittent power, integrated energy storage ensures continuous operation during periods of low ambient energy availability. E-skin nanofiber membranes have emerged as transformative materials for advanced energy storage systems, offering exceptional advantages as both electrodes and separators in batteries and supercapacitors [211, 212]. Their unique combination of high specific surface area, tunable porosity, thermal stability, and mechanical robustness makes them particularly valuable for next-generation energy storage applications.
The primary function of integrated energy storage (supercapacitors, batteries) is therefore to act as a buffer accumulating energy from intermittent harvesting bursts and then releasing it as a stable, continuous trickle of power. The overall system lifespan is dictated by the balance between the average harvested power, the storage capacity, and the power consumption profile of the sensing/communication load. This highlights that the key metric is not the peak output of a harvester, but the system’s ability to achieve a positive energy balance over its operational duty cycle.
4.4.1 Nanofiber-based rechargeable batteries
E-Skin nanofibers are reshaping rechargeable battery technologies by providing lightweight, high-surface-area, and mechanically resilient platforms for both electrodes and separators. Their interconnected porous networks enable efficient ion diffusion, while their flexibility supports integration into bendable and wearable systems. In lithium-ion batteries LIBs, silicon–carbon (Si/C) composite nanofibers are promising anode materials due to their ability to accommodate volume changes while retaining conductivity. For example, a flexible LIB with Si/C nanofiber anodes maintained 90% capacity after 500 bending cycles, confirming their suitability for wearable E-skin [213,214,215].
Beyond lithium systems, nanofiber membranes have been adapted for zinc-ion and sodium-ion batteries, serving as advanced separators, electrodes, and electrolytes to enhance safety, ionic conductivity, and electrochemical performance. Coaxial electrospinning has been used to produce core–shell membranes with flame-retardant additives such as triphenyl phosphate (TPP) and SiO₂, achieving 95% capacity retention after 100 cycles with excellent flame resistance [216]. Similarly, fluorinated polyimide (FPI)-reinforced PVDF membranes demonstrated superior mechanical strength and electrolyte uptake compared with commercial Celgard [217], while PAN-based nanofibers incorporating boric acid, melamine, and delaminated BN nanosheets showed exceptional thermal stability and cycling performance in LiFePO₄ batteries (Fig. 7A) [218].
On the electrode side, binder-free CNF@NiCo₂S₄ nanofiber electrodes demonstrated high capacity and energy density in Ni–Zn batteries (Fig. 7B) [219]. Carbon-coated V₂O₅ nanofibers enhanced discharge capacity and structural stability in photo-rechargeable LIBs [214], while carbon-decorated Na₃MnTi(PO₄)₃ nanofibers offered excellent Na⁺ transport and long-term cycling stability, retaining over 60% capacity after 6300 cycles [187]. Composite membranes blending PVDF and FPI further improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrolyte uptake, outperforming conventional separators. Collectively, these innovations highlight the potential of nanofiber technology to address safety, flexibility, and performance challenges in next-generation rechargeable batteries.
4.4.2 Nanofiber-based supercapacitors
Supercapacitors, or electrochemical capacitors, are distinguished by their rapid charge–discharge capabilities, long lifespan, and broad operational temperature range, outperforming conventional capacitors in both energy and power density [220]. In these devices, electrospun carbon nanofibers CNFs derived from PAN, polyimide PMIA, or sustainable sources such as lignin provide conductive, porous backbones ideal for ion adsorption and desorption [221, 222]. Their capacitance arises from two mechanisms: electric double-layer capacitance, involving charge separation at the electrode–electrolyte interface, and pseudo capacitance, driven by reversible surface redox reactions [17, 220]. Since capacitance scales with surface area, nanofiber electrodes are engineered for maximum porosity and surface exposure.
E-skin nanofibers self-powered energy system. A) Fabrication schematic illustration of the PB3N1BN electrospun membrane with good mechanical performance, excellent electrolyte wettability, superior fire resistance, and high thermal stability via electrospinning method a), AFM image, b) height profile along the white line, c) and the digital image of BNNSs. XRD patterns, d) of PAN, PB3N1, PB3N1-BN, PB3N1BN electrospun membranes and BNNS. Reproduced with permission [218]. B) Schematic diagram for synthesizing the self-standing CNF@NiCo2S4 film. Reproduced with permission [219]. C) Schematic diagram for the overall fabrication procedure of PAN nanofiber, carbon nanofiber, and NiCo2S4@CNF nanocomposite. Reproduced with permission [186]. D) Schematic diagram of preparation process of mPEDOT@FKM films. Reproduced with permission [223]
Electrospinning enables scalable fabrication of such nanostructured electrodes. When combined with conductive polymers, metal oxides, or carbon-based materials, electrospun nanofibers form interconnected porous networks that facilitate ion transport, boost surface area, and enhance energy density [224,225,226]. For example, vanadium/cobalt oxide VCO based CNFs fabricated from cobalt(II) acetate tetrahydrate and vanadyl acetylacetonate in a PAN/DMF solution achieved a surface area of 118.9 m² g⁻¹ and specific capacitance of 1.83 F cm⁻² at 8 mA cm⁻², retaining 95.2% capacitance and 100% Coulombic efficiency after 10,000 cycles under extreme bending [227].
Recent work emphasizes renewable and multifunctional materials. Lignin-derived microporous CNF membranes with TEOS achieved a surface area of 1197 m² g⁻¹, 84.1% microporosity, and 282 F g⁻¹ at 0.2 A g⁻¹, demonstrating sustainable high-performance energy storage [228]. Similarly, NiCo₂S₄@CNF composites prepared via hydrothermal growth on N-doped CNFs delivered energy densities of 65.6 and 52.5 W kg⁻¹ with power densities of 665 and 1313.8 W kg⁻¹, retaining 72% capacitance after 3000 cycles (Fig. 7C) [186]. Conductive polymer composites, such as PANI-coated CNFs fabricated via electrospray and chemical polymerization, improved conductivity, mechanical durability, and strain tolerance [229, 230]. A notable example is a stretchable supercapacitor constructed via self-selecting gas-phase polymerization on fluorinated elastomer nanofibers, exhibiting 99.5% capacitance retention after 500 stretches and flame-retardant performance (Fig. 7D) [223].
Together, nanofiber-enabled batteries and supercapacitors present a powerful toolkit for modern energy storage, combining high energy and power densities with physical adaptability, safety, and scalability key attributes for the next generation of sustainable and wearable technologies.
4.5 System-level integration and power management
Fully autonomous E-skin systems require seamless integration of energy harvesting, storage, power management, sensing, and wireless communication into compact, flexible architectures. Two primary connection schemes exist between harvesters and storage units: series integration, which increases output voltage but reduces available current, and parallel integration, which enhances current supply while lowering voltage ideal for low-voltage sensors and communication modules [231, 232].
A critical strategy to overcome the inherent intermittency and inconsistent output of PENGs and TENGs involves sophisticated Power Management Units (PMUs) [233]. These circuits go beyond simple rectification, incorporating functions like maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to optimize energy extraction from the nanogenerators’ high-impedance sources, followed by voltage regulation and efficient energy buffering in storage elements [234]. This electronic stabilization is essential to convert the raw, pulsed output into a stable and continuous power supply suitable for driving sensors and wireless transmitters.
Flexible printed circuit boards (FPCBs) are often employed to interconnect harvesters, storage devices (e.g., supercapacitors, batteries), sensors, and wireless modules, allowing modularity, scalability, and easy maintenance. However, a primary limitation in achieving fully flexible and conformable systems is the integration of rigid or semi-rigid components, such as silicon-based PMU ICs and traditional FPCBs, onto the soft nanofiber matrix [235]. This mechanical mismatch can create stress concentration points, compromising the overall flexibility and comfort of the e-skin. Research is now focused on developing fully stretchable circuits using liquid metal interconnects, printable stretchable conductors, and even distributing PMU functionality across flexible organic transistors to overcome this bottleneck [236].
Central to energy flow is the power management unit PMU, which matches intermittent outputs from TENGs and PENGs to the dynamic demands of electronics. PMUs incorporate functions such as maximum power point tracking MPPT, voltage rectification, regulation, and buffering to stabilize supply. Recent designs feature ultra-low-power MPPT integrated circuits optimized for nanogenerators, along with flexible rectifiers and high-efficiency DC–DC converters for low-voltage operation. One notable example is a self-powered E-skin patch integrating a TENG, supercapacitor, and compact PMU to continuously monitor cardiovascular signals without external power [237], demonstrating the feasibility of battery-free biomedical wearables [238].
Wireless communication is equally vital for remote monitoring and real-time feedback in E-skin [239]. Common protocols include Bluetooth Low Energy BLE, near-field communication NFC, and ZigBee, which enable data transfer to external devices. However, wireless modules typically draw 10–30 mA during transmission, making power-efficient strategies essential. Techniques such as duty cycling and event-triggered operation help minimize consumption [240]. For example, an E-skin glove equipped with BLE and powered by a TENG supercapacitor hybrid wirelessly transmitted joint motion data in real time [241, 242]. The overall system lifespan is dictated by the weakest link, which is often the energy storage device’s cycle life or the sensor’s long-term drift, not the nanofiber substrate itself.
A critical analysis reveals that while individual nanofiber-based components (sensors, harvesters, batteries) show impressive lab-scale performance, their integration into a fully functional, robust, and long-lasting autonomous system is the next grand challenge. The performance claims of surpassing rigid silicon-based systems are quantitatively substantiated in the benchmarking tables above, which clearly show the combination of high sensitivity, flexibility, and self-powering capability that was unattainable with early e-skin prototypes.
5 Applications of nanofiber e-skin
5.1 Healthcare & wearable diagnostics
The integration of nanofiber-based e-skin into healthcare and diagnostics has created new opportunities for real-time, non-invasive, and continuous monitoring of physiological signals. Electrospun nanofibers, with their high surface-to-volume ratio, tunable porosity, mechanical flexibility, and intrinsic biocompatibility, provide soft, skin-conformal platforms that track vital parameters while ensuring long-term comfort [243, 244]. Incorporation of conductive nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, metallic nanoparticles, and MXenes enables highly sensitive detection of temperature, heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure [245, 246]. Stimuli-responsive fibers further expand diagnostic capabilities by responding to humidity, pH, or biochemical cues [247, 248]. For instance, multifunctional wound dressings integrating drug-loaded nanofibers with biosensors both accelerate tissue repair and monitor wound status, reshaping strategies for chronic wound care [249, 250]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, nanofiber membranes also proved effective in personal protective equipment by combining high-efficiency pathogen filtration with antimicrobial functions [251, 252].
Beyond passive monitoring, next-generation e-skins integrate energy-harvesting components to power biosensors autonomously. Hybrid systems coupling piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators with nanofibers harvest biomechanical energy from walking, breathing, or muscle contractions [7, 253]. For example, bacterial cellulose-supported TENG-based e-skins tracked limb motion while simultaneously generating usable power. Printable MXene-based micro-supercapacitors have further enabled lightweight, flexible energy storage, supporting continuous operation in smart gloves that monitor joint dynamics and muscle fatigue for rehabilitation and sports applications [254, 255].
Nanofiber e-skins are also being explored for continuous physiological tracking in musculoskeletal disorders, neurological monitoring, and post-stroke rehabilitation. Bioinspired designs mimicking strain redistribution in insect antennae improve sensitivity and linearity, allowing precise gait and joint angle analysis [256]. Multiparametric sensing correlates motion data with heart rate variability or respiratory cycles, providing a more comprehensive picture of patient health. With advances in machine learning and wireless IoT integration, these systems are expected to evolve into intelligent diagnostic platforms capable of predicting adverse events and enabling personalized telemedicine [257, 258]. However, a critical challenge for widespread clinical adoption is the need for robust, user-independent calibration models that can account for inter-subject variability and motion artifacts, moving beyond proof-of-concept demonstrations to validated clinical tools.
5.1.1 Physiological signal monitoring and tracking
Nanofiber- based e-skin platforms have transformed continuous, non-invasive, and high-fidelity monitoring of physiological signals, enabling the detection of heart rate, blood pressure BP, respiration, and other vital signs. The intrinsic properties of electrospun nanofibers including their high surface-to-volume ratio, tunable porosity, and mechanical compliance provide superior sensitivity and biocompatibility compared to rigid sensors, making them ideal for next-generation wearable healthcare systems.
For cardiovascular monitoring, piezoresistive and piezoelectric nanofiber sensors integrated into flexible patches demonstrate remarkable responsiveness to arterial pulsations. Ag nanowire AgNW coated polyurethane nanofibers have captured radial pulse waveforms at clinical-grade resolution [259, 260]. Cuffless blood pressure monitoring has advanced through nanofiber strain sensors that assess pulse wave velocity PWV, providing reliable systolic and diastolic pressure estimates [261, 262]. Zhi et al. developed a directional moisture-wicking electronic skin (DMWES) with a MXene/CNT conductive layer, achieving high sensitivity (548.09 kPa⁻¹) for accurate pulse and BP monitoring under dynamic conditions (Fig. 8A) [263]. Similarly, Gerass et al. fabricated a bioinspired piezoresistive MXene–hydrogel composite sensor, combining short peptides with Ti₃C₂Tz nanosheets for durable, biocompatible, and sensitive detection of physiological signals [264]. Aligned PVDF-TrFE nanofibers and CNT-doped TPU composites have shown excellent correlation with invasive BP measurements R² >0.9, reinforcing their translational potential [265].
Respiratory monitoring has benefited from breathable nanofiber architectures capable of detecting chest wall motion or humidity fluctuations during breathing. Nanofiber-based chest straps can record respiratory rates across 8–30 breaths/min, supporting applications in sleep apnea detection, asthma management, and stress monitoring [55, 266]. Lan et al. designed a coaxial PVDF/CNT nanofiber sensor with high sensitivity (3.7 V/N) and rapid response (20 ms), which, when integrated into facial masks, distinguished various breathing patterns with 97.8% accuracy using convolutional neural networks (Fig. 8B) [267]. Similarly, Jiang et al. fabricated biodegradable nanopatterned stereocomplexed PLA membranes functionalized with CNT@ZIF-8 nanohybrids for dual respiratory monitoring and PM2.5 air filtration, demonstrating outputs of up to 13.5 V and efficient pollutant capture [268]. The convergence of sensing and filtration, as in Jiang et al.‘s work, is a powerful example of multifunctionality, but long-term clogging and performance stability in real-world environments remain to be fully addressed.
E-skin nanofibers physiological signal monitoring. A) Fabrication and application of the DMWES membrane. Reproduced with permission [263]. B) Concept of respiratory monitoring: a) human respiratory system with three tracts; b–d) resistance changes of sensors on shoulder, elbow, and thigh under different movements; e) volunteers wearing eight sensors during running; f) resistance changes on shoulders, elbows, hips, and knees during running. Reproduced with permission [267]. C) Wireless wearable health monitoring and early warning system assisted by AI. Reproduced with permission [269]. D) Real-time detection of sleep quality and environment: a) e-skin detecting sleep quality. Reproduced with permission [270]. E) Wound repair without exogenous bioactive agents [271]. F) Hierarchical biomimetic electrospun SDVG with bilayered PCL substrate and PDA/Cu/REDV coating, showing multifunctional properties. Reproduced with permission [272]
To achieve real-time tracking and remote diagnostics, nanofiber-based e-skins are increasingly integrated with wireless communication technologies, including Bluetooth Low Energy BLE [273], Near-Field Communication NFC [274, 275], Radio Frequency Identification RFID [276], and Wi-Fi [277]. These frameworks facilitate seamless data acquisition and mobile health connectivity. For example, NFC-powered e-skins enable sweat pH and electrolyte monitoring with results transmitted directly to smartphones, making them ideal for elderly care or sports applications. BLE-enabled platforms extend communication range and operating time, supporting continuous tracking of biomarkers such as vitamin C [278]. Advanced soft systems even integrate passive RFID-linked nanofiber sensors into textiles, enabling multiplexed physiological monitoring without rigid electronics [276, 279].
Self-powered e-skins further reduce reliance on external batteries. A dermal papillae-inspired all-fibrous triboelectric nanogenerator enabled real-time monitoring of respiration, heartbeat, and sleep phases, with high pressure sensitivity 0.32 V kPa⁻¹ and rapid humidity response (Fig. 8D) [270]. Gao et al. developed ultra-robust conducting microfibers with high extensibility ~700% that tracked tremors, respiration, and pulse in real time, forming the basis of a wearable telemedicine system (Fig. 8C) [269]. Further enhancements to RFID systems through the integration of hybrid triboelectric–electromagnetic nanogenerators have increased communication distance, broadening the practical applicability of these systems.
Taken together, nanofiber e-skins provide continuous, multimodal, and real-time physiological signal tracking, with applications in cardiovascular monitoring, respiratory health, neurological assessment, and sleep quality analysis [63, 115, 280]. By integrating sensitive nanofiber sensing, energy harvesting, and wireless data transmission, these systems are evolving into intelligent, autonomous diagnostic tools that will play a central role in personalized, preventive, and remote healthcare [281]. A critical analysis shows that while individual sensor performance is often excellent, the overall system-level reliability and energy autonomy for continuous, multi-day operation are the current frontiers of development.
5.1.2 Smart wound healing platforms (integrated monitoring, controlled drug release, regenerative engineering)
Recent progress in wound care has moved beyond passive dressings toward multifunctional nanofiber platforms capable of real-time monitoring, on-demand drug release, and active tissue regeneration. Such systems are highly relevant for chronic wounds, burns, diabetic ulcers, and post-surgical recovery, where traditional dressings often fail due to delayed healing, recurrent infection, or poor drug delivery control.
Wound monitoring technologies
Nanofiber-based e-skins enable closed-loop wound management by integrating biosensors with therapeutic release functions [46, 282]. Electrospun bioactive fibers from chitosan, gelatin, or PCL can be loaded with antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, or growth factors, while simultaneously monitoring wound conditions [250]. For instance, gelatin nanofibers loaded with lumbrokinase GLK promoted VEGF expression, suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines, and accelerated wound closure and angiogenesis in vivo [283]. Similarly, MXene-doped cellulose nanofiber dressings combined antimicrobial activity with wireless temperature sensing for infection control [284]. Hao et al. fabricated anisotropic PDA–PCL/GM hydrogel scaffolds providing NIR-driven photothermal stimulation and directional cues for enhanced tissue regeneration without added biofactors (Fig. 8E) [271]. Multiparametric systems, such as MXene–graphene bandages capable of measuring temperature, pH, and uric acid [285] or perforated sweat-pore-inspired E-skins that reduce moisture accumulation [286], exemplify clinically adaptable wound-monitoring platforms. A significant hurdle is achieving accurate, stable sensing in the complex, evolving biochemical environment of a wound bed, where biofouling can degrade performance.
Controlled drug release mechanisms
Electrospun nanofibers’ high porosity and ECM-like architecture allow tunable drug release via internal triggers like pH and enzymatic activity or external stimuli e.g., heat, light and magnetic fields [247]. Thermoresponsive PNIPAM nanofibers enable ibuprofen release via embedded microheaters [287]. while pH-responsive PLLA nanofibers with CaCO₃-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles exploit acidic wound environments for rapid diffusion [288]. Advanced structures such as Janus nanofibers enable sequential delivery, whereas dual-/multi-stimuli systems enhance precision. Nakielski et al. reported sandwich-structured PLA fibers with thermo-responsive hydrogel and gold nanorods for photothermal-triggered release [289]. Lin et al. integrated curcumin-loaded nanoparticles and liquid metal layers into TPU fibers for NIR-triggered release combined with motion sensing [290]. Pan et al. fabricated nanofibers with tunable glass transition temperatures Tg for precise, temperature-activated drug delivery at physiological conditions [291]. Multi-responsive scaffolds, incorporating magnetic graphene oxide for magnetothermal therapy plus pH-triggered release, further broaden therapeutic functionality [292]. Zhao et al. demonstrated that hybrid systems combining pH-sensitive calcium carbonate-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles within PLLA nanofibers release drugs rapidly in acidic conditions via CO₂ generation, promoting matrix swelling [293].
Tissue regeneration strategies
Beyond antimicrobial action and drug release, nanofiber scaffolds intrinsically promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and migration due to their biomimetic ECM morphology [294]. Functionalization with growth factors, nanoparticles, or stem cells further accelerates tissue repair. Xiang et al. engineered a bilayered vascular graft with PDA/Cu²⁺/REDV coatings, achieving enhanced endothelialization, reduced inflammation, and in vivo vascular repair (Fig. 8F) [272]. Injectable nanofiber hydrogels provide minimally invasive options for irregular wounds, delivering sustained support and localized therapy [295]. PDA-modified antibacterial nanofiber hydrogels have shown self-healing, antimicrobial, and pro-regenerative performance in vivo [296]. Emerging adaptive E-skin systems go a step further, employing iontophoretic hydrogels and bio-responsive nanofibers that dynamically adjust release in response to local bio-signals, enabling personalized wound management. The translation of these advanced systems is limited by the complexity and cost of manufacturing multi-layered, multi-functional scaffolds under sterile conditions, as well as regulatory pathways for such combination products.
5.2 Human-machine interaction
HMI has rapidly advanced with flexible electronics, intelligent materials, and AI-driven processing. Among these, nanofiber-based e-skins serve as critical enablers, offering soft, stretchable, and multifunctional platforms that mimic human skin’s sensory and mechanical properties. By bridging the physical and perceptual divide between humans and machines, e-skin facilitates bidirectional communication, advancing prosthetics, robotics, and neural-integrated systems [297]. The convergence of materials science, bioelectronics, AI, and neuroscience has enabled HMI platforms capable of learning, adapting, and functioning reliably in real-world, dynamic environments [298].
Flexible, multimodal nanofiber sensor arrays capture mechanical, thermal, and electrophysiological signals with high fidelity [299]. Processed via machine learning ML algorithms, including deep neural networks, these inputs are translated into commands for prosthetics, robotic manipulators, or digital systems, making e-skin a cornerstone of next-generation interactive devices.
5.2.1 Prosthetics, robotic skin, and gesture recognition
Prosthetic systems equipped with nanofiber-based e-skin have demonstrated enhanced tactile sensation and motor control. Sensors fabricated from conductive or piezoelectric nanofibers enable detection of pressure, strain, and temperature, transmitting haptic feedback through electrical or mechanical stimulation [300, 301]. For instance, Wang et al. integrated PVDF-based sensors into a bionic hand, enabling perception of textures and grip modulation [302]. Chang et al. reported a self-powered TENG-based tactile array embedded in prosthetic sockets, using PDMS/PCL nanofiber composites to achieve high sensitivity, stability over 10,000 cycles, and real-time pressure mapping (Fig. 9A) [303]. Such feedback loops restore more natural environmental interaction for amputees.
The realization of a truly ‘natural environmental interaction’ is currently limited by the total closed-loop latency of the HMI system. This latency encompasses the sensor’s response time, the signal transmission and processing delay especially for complex AI algorithms, and the final generation of haptic or mechanical feedback [304]. Perceptible delays of even a few hundred milliseconds can disrupt the sense of immersion and intuitive control for amputees. Research is addressing this through edge computing and neuromorphic hardware that mimics the brain’s event-driven, parallel processing to drastically reduce both power consumption and latency [305].
In robotics, nanofiber e-skin extends tactile perception to artificial systems, improving dexterity and safe human interaction. These systems incorporate arrays of highly sensitive sensors that detect external mechanical stimuli such as touch, slip, and object rigidity. This sensory input allows robotic systems to adapt their behavior, improving dexterity and safety in tasks involving human interaction [306, 307]. Wang et al. demonstrated CNT–TPU nanofiber sensors for robotic arms, enabling grip adjustment based on object hardness [160]. Cheng et al. fabricated an all-nanofiber Janus textile e-skin with TENG integration, achieving high voltage output 356 V and sensitivity 6.79 kPa⁻¹, supporting energy harvesting and adaptive robotic control (Fig. 9B) [308].
Gesture recognition systems powered by nanofiber sensors provide immersive HMI solutions [309]. Strain-sensitive smart gloves interpret finger/wrist motions for drone navigation and VR/AR interfaces [310]. Wan et al. created a multimodal aerogel–PVDF nanofiber sensor capable of magnetic, strain, and pressure detection for accurate real-time gesture control (Fig. 9C) [311]. Similarly, Ye et al. introduced a bimodal tactile perceptron integrating capacitive and triboelectric sensors, enabling >98% recognition accuracy and robust material identification [188]. Advanced MXene/PVA nanofiber-based TENG gloves further achieved >96% accuracy in gesture classification when combined with ML algorithms (Fig. 9D) [312]. Enhanced by a multilayer perceptron MLP neural network, the system achieved 96.36% gesture recognition accuracy, offering a comfortable and precise human–machine interaction interface. For instance, robotic grippers outfitted with PU/MXene-based sensors can detect subtle pressure changes [313], modulating grip strength to safely manipulate soft objects like tofu or raspberries. These advances highlight how e-skin technology is not only enhancing robotic capabilities but also creating prosthetics and interfaces that respond to human intention with precision, adaptability, and intuitive control.
5.2.2 Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs, neural-integrated e-skin)
Brain Computer Interfaces BCIs represent a transformative HMI pathway by directly linking neural activity to external devices, bypassing conventional motor pathways. This holds particular promise for individuals with paralysis or motor disabilities, enabling control of prosthetics, wheelchairs, and digital systems through brain signals alone [314].
Functional applications of e-skin nanofibers sensors. A) TENG-based tactile sensor for prosthetic limb pressure monitoring: (a) sensor array system; (b) cross-sectional view with PDMS, PCL nanofiber membrane, and PEDOT: PSS electrode; c–d) SEM images of PCL nanofibers and pyramid-patterned PDMS; e) integration with data acquisition and HMI system showing pressure distribution. Reproduced with permission [303]. B) Fabrication of (a) Janus textile and (b) TPU/FPU nanofiber; applications in (c) TENG, (d) self-powered E-skin sensor, and (e) human–machine interaction. Reproduced with permission [308]. C) (a) Preparation and (b) applications of SPMM@PVDF sensors. Reproduced with permission [311]. D) CNF-PDMS piezoresistive sensors: (a) glabrous and hairy skin mechanoreceptors; (b) fabrication steps. Reproduced with permission [312]. E) CNF-PDMS tactile sensor: a) skin mechanoreceptors; b–c) fabrication and photograph; d) smart glove with tactile, stretch, and bending sensors connected via Wheatstone bridges to a neural network. Reproduced with permission [315]. F) Janus textile electrode with directional sweat transport: comparison with hydrophilic electrodes showing improved skin contact under sweating conditions. Reproduced with permission [316]
Recent advances in nanofiber-based electrodes have enhanced BCI comfort, wearability, and signal fidelity. Electrospun fibers incorporating silver nanowires AgNWs, graphene, or polyaniline have enabled soft, dry-contact EEG/EMG electrodes with long-term biocompatibility [314, 317]. A textile EEG headset fabricated from PANI–AgNW nanofibers achieved ~90% motor imagery decoding accuracy, underscoring their real-world applicability [318].
Beyond sensing, closed-loop BCIs combining neural monitoring with stimulation are emerging. For instance, TENG-based BCI patches can harvest biomechanical energy and deliver electrical pulses for peripheral nerve stimulation during rehabilitation, uniting sensing and therapy [319, 320]. Neuromorphic approaches, such as carbon nanofiber–PDMS sensors coupled with spiking neural networks, mimic biological tactile processing for efficient, bioinspired BCIs (Fig. 9E) [315].
Multi-modal systems incorporating EMG and ECG with EEG broaden application scope for neuroprosthetics and health monitoring [232]. Dry fiber-based electrodes offer breathable, gel-free operation, reducing irritation and enabling long-term biosignal acquisition [321]. Yang et al. advanced this further with a Janus nanofiber electrode (HPAN/PU/AgNW) providing rapid sweat wicking and stable adhesion, ensuring artifact-free ECG/EMG monitoring under sweaty conditions (Fig. 9F) [316]. By combining soft, biocompatible nanofibers with neural integration, BCIs are evolving into practical, wearable systems for rehabilitation, neuroprosthetics, and even immersive VR/AR control. Ultimately, nanofiber-based e-skin technologies enable bidirectional communication between the brain and machines, paving the way for a new era of human–technology symbiosis [322, 323]. The path forward involves multi-modal signal acquisition and developing BCIs that are truly wearable and socially acceptable for daily use.
5.3 Environmental & industrial monitoring
The accelerating pace of industrialization and urbanization has intensified the need for efficient, recyclable, and sustainable approaches to environmental remediation and monitoring. Electrospun hybrid nanofibers, owing to their high surface area, tunable porosity, and multifunctionality, have emerged as advanced platforms for environmental sensing and catalytic remediation [324,325,326]. These nanofiber systems can be engineered to detect or remove pollutants, offering superior sensitivity, selectivity, and reusability compared to conventional methods [327, 328].
These hybrid systems can either physically filter pollutants or catalytically degrade them through the incorporation of active agents such as metal oxides, carbon nanotubes CNTs, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and noble metal nanoparticles [329, 330].
Functionalization with materials such as metal oxides, CNTs, noble metal nanoparticles, or metal organic frameworks MOFs expand their capabilities beyond passive sensing. For example, MOF-loaded nanofibers e.g., ZIF-8, UiO-66, ZIF-67 integrated within PAN or chitosan/PVA matrices have exhibited high adsorption capacities for dyes such as methylene blue, Congo red, and malachite green while maintaining excellent recyclability [331,332,333,334]. Systems like β-cyclodextrin-modified polystyrene fibers or graphene oxide-incorporated PVDF-co-HFP fibers offer both high adsorption and sensing capabilities [335, 336].
Hybrid nanofibers have also been tailored for electrocatalysis and water treatment. Electrospun PAN fibers embedded with Ni and Pt nanoparticles act as efficient catalysts for water splitting, while Pd-doped carbon nanofibers have demonstrated high activity in Suzuki coupling reactions (Fig. 10) [337, 338].Similarly, multifunctional nanofiber membranes incorporating TiO₂, Ag, or halloysite nanotubes can simultaneously filter pathogens, degrade pharmaceutical contaminants (e.g., >99% removal of acetaminophen), and provide antibacterial protection [339, 340]. For heavy metal remediation, nanofiber composites incorporating MOFs, TiO₂/ZrO₂, or zero-valent iron have achieved high adsorption capacities with excellent regeneration performance [341,342,343]. By combining high-efficiency pollutant removal with real-time environmental sensing, nanofiber systems contribute to a new era of intelligent, responsive infrastructure. These platforms not only support environmental protection but also provide actionable data to optimize industrial processes, resource management, and safety monitoring, reinforcing their role as multifunctional materials for sustainable development. However, for large-scale environmental and infrastructural deployment, the cost-effectiveness, long-term stability under harsh conditions, and end-of-life recyclability of these nanofiber systems must be critically evaluated against incumbent technologies. Scalable manufacturing is a prerequisite for such applications.
Environmental & industrial monitoring
5.3.1 Smart infrastructure
Nanofiber-based sensors are also revolutionizing smart building technologies, where maintaining indoor air quality, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency is essential for occupant health and productivity. Their inherent porosity and large surface area allow rapid and selective detection of volatile organic compounds VOCs, CO₂, NOₓ, and humidity at low power consumption, enabling scalable deployment in HVAC and environmental monitoring systems [344]. For instance, ZnO/PAN nanofiber sensor arrays demonstrated high sensitivity and selectivity for multiplex indoor pollutants, underscoring their potential in integrated air-quality monitoring [345].
Temperature regulation is another critical application. Distributed networks of flexible nanofiber thermoresistive sensors or infrared-absorbing nanofibers provide spatially resolved thermal mapping across walls, floors, or ceilings, enabling dynamic HVAC optimization. A NiO/carbon nanofiber composite sensor, for example, achieved ± 0.5 °C accuracy when embedded in building floors, supporting precise thermal zoning and efficient energy management [346].
Recent efforts emphasize multifunctional sensor integration, merging pressure, temperature, and humidity detection within a single architecture. An ultrathin, bifunctional TPU nanofiber sensor incorporating PEDOT electrodes with graphene nanoflakes and Co₃O₄ nanoparticles achieved high sensitivity, humidity resistance, and breathability, while preventing cross-talk between sensing modes [347]. Such multifunctional e-skin platforms not only track environmental parameters but also capture occupant interactions, linking building intelligence with personalized wellness monitoring.
6 Challenges and future outlook
The rapid evolution of nanofiber-based E-skins has created transformative opportunities, yet several fundamental challenges hinder their widespread translation from laboratory prototypes to commercial systems.
Manufacturing scalability and material trade-offs
A critical barrier remains manufacturing scalability. While advanced electrospinning techniques like needleless and roll-to-roll processing are promising for increasing throughput, seamless integration with multilayer patterning, encapsulation, and device assembly particularly under sterile conditions for medical use remains technically demanding and costly. Material trade-offs present another significant bottleneck [348]. Biodegradable polymers e.g., PLA, PCL offer eco-friendly disposal but often lack the long-term mechanical robustness and environmental stability of durable synthetics [349]. Achieving multifunctional nanocomposites with programmable degradation profiles and high performance is an urgent need. Furthermore, regulatory pathways for these complex, multi-functional devices, especially those combining sensing, drug delivery, and energy harvesting, are unclear and will require extensive validation for clinical approval [350].
Energy management and real-world powering
Energy management is a pivotal challenge for autonomy. While nanofiber-based batteries and supercapacitors provide flexible storage, they often struggle to balance high energy density with mechanical flexibility and safety. Self-powered mechanisms PENGs, TENGs offer a path to autonomy but, as noted in Sect. 4, generate inconsistent outputs under real-world, dynamic conditions [351]. A critical future direction lies in developing sophisticated hybrid energy systems that intelligently manage power from multiple harvesters (mechanical, thermal, solar) and storage units, coupled with ultra-low-power electronics and efficient power management circuits PMUs to ensure reliable, continuous operation for practical applications [352].
Intelligent integration and neuromorphic computing
The next phase of E-skin evolution will be defined by intelligence integration. Embedding machine learning algorithms can enable adaptive sensing and predictive diagnostics. Beyond software, neuromorphic computing offers a hardware revolution. The unique properties of nanofibers are being leveraged to engineer neuromorphic elements at the material level [315]. For instance, memristors can be fabricated using nanofiber networks where the tunable porosity and high surface area facilitate the formation and rupture of conductive filaments, mimicking synaptic plasticity. Similarly, iontronic nanofiber systems can replicate the dynamic ion transport of biological synapses, enabling event-driven, ultra-low-power sensory processing that closely mimics biological skin. This hardware-level neuromorphism is critical for overcoming the latency and power consumption issues in current HMI systems [301, 352].
Collectively, overcoming these challenges will require interdisciplinary convergence. The path forward involves merging advanced manufacturing, multifunctional nanocomposites, embedded AI, and robust system integration. Seamless coupling with emerging wireless frameworks will facilitate a new ecosystem of real-time health, environmental, and industrial monitoring. By addressing scalability, power, and intelligence, the future of nanofiber E-skins points towards fully autonomous, adaptive, and sustainable systems capable of seamless operation in the complex real world.
7 Conclusion
This review has critically examined the advances in electrospun nanofiber-based electronic skins, with a specific emphasis on the synergistic integration of sensing and energy harvesting for autonomous systems. We have detailed how the fundamental properties of nanofibers high surface area, tunable porosity, mechanical compliance, and biocompatibility provide a unique platform that overcomes the limitations of earlier rigid and flexible electronics. Through strategic material selection, structural engineering, and advanced fabrication, these systems now demonstrate remarkable capabilities in multimodal sensing tactile, thermal, biochemical and self-powering via nanogenerators and integrated storage. The applications in healthcare, from clinical-grade physiological monitoring to smart wound dressings, and in human-machine interaction, from intuitive prosthetics to brain-computer interfaces, underscore the transformative potential of this technology. Furthermore, their role in environmental sensing and smart infrastructure highlights a broader impact beyond biomedical fields. However, as outlined, the journey from laboratory prototype to commercial reality is paved with challenges. Scalable manufacturing, long-term stability under real-world conditions, consistent energy autonomy, and navigating regulatory landscapes are the critical hurdles that must be cleared. The future of this field lies in interdisciplinary solutions: embracing advanced manufacturing for scale, designing intelligent hybrid power systems, and pioneering material-level neuromorphic computing for efficient processing. By bridging these gaps, electrospun nanofiber-based E-skins are poised to transition from promising prototypes to integral, intelligent systems that redefine our interaction with technology, enhance human health, and contribute to a more sustainable and responsive world.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
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Funding
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2023YFF0713900), Anhui Provincial Natural Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars (No. 2108085J37), Anhui Provincial Transformation Project of Clinical Medicine Research (No. 202204295107020002), and Anhui Provincial Major Science and Technology Project (No. 202203a07020022).
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Muhammad Azam Fareed wrote the main manuscript text and prepared the figures. Kashan Memon, Bing Zhang, and Zhicheng Liu reviewed and edited the manuscript. Gang Zhao supervised the project and validated the final manuscript.
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Fareed, M.A., Memon, K., Zhang, B. et al. Advances in electrospun nanofiber-based electronic skin for smart sensing and energy harvesting. Discov Electron 2, 98 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44291-025-00138-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44291-025-00138-y