Content and Language Integrated Learning in Higher Education.
This Best Practice report compiled during the Erasmus+ project CLIL4ALL led by the TH Wildau in Brandenburg with the University of Cordoba, Jean Monnet University, HAN in the Netherlands and Karelia in Finland used the ROADMAPPING approach to compare these five universities involved in the this EU Erasmus+ project. ROADMAPPING is a framework developed by Ute Smit and Emma Dafouz to analyse how an institution is developing in integrating a foreign language into its teaching. Briefly it involves:
ROle of English:
For many institutions English is the international language which staff use to communicate with international partners whether in administration or academia. For many professors it is the language they used when they were students and now read widely in English and may even publish in English. Is English as a lingua franca the language that students wish to study in to start on an international career? Or is English not directly relevant to most students' lives and something they perceive as a burden rather than a blessing?
Academic Discipline:
The language that is being taught using the CLIL approach is directly related to what the content professor is actually teaching in the same class whether that is physically side-by-side where both the professor and the language teacher are co-teaching or teaching at different times. A key insight that shapes this approach is that language is significantly different in different disciplines. How language is used in engineering or economics or law is radically different due to how these disciplines view the world and evaluate truth propositions relating to their world. For example in economics there is much more use of modal verbs, e.g. may, might, could, would, than in engineering where often only the modal verb can is used.
Language Management:
This aspect deals with the relationship between the language centre and the teaching staff as well as the administration. Are they communicating clearly with one another? Especially, what is the language centre offering in terms of language support to other departments of the university? What are the language requirements demanded of professors teaching in a foreign language (FL) and students studying in one? How rigorously are certificates checked? Are professors rewarded for teaching in the FL and, if so, is this system transparent and appropriate?
Agents:
Is the process of introducing an additional teaching language top-down or bottom-up? Who is driving the process? Traditionally, CLIL has been led by individuals with some support by department heads or deans. Sooner or later these individuals encounter institutional obstacles that call for some institutional reponse, for example by drawing up a language policy. At the same time, official documents and policies may have little effect if not implemented by committed individuals.
Practices and Processes:
Does teaching in the FL meaning using FL/Anglo-American textbooks? And does this in turn lead to a different pedagogical style? Or, on the other hand, is the national culture and the institutional culture dominant even though the teaching language is international English? We can observe a collision of culturally determined teaching styles and learning styles. The composition of classes of international students is another issue that deserves attention to prevent blocs of students emerging along national lines.
Internationalisation and Glocalisation:
One issue is the effect of hosting many international students at the home university. What changes and challenges does this process pose for university staff, not least the administration. Does this necessarily lead to a bilingual university? Or, as in the case of Japan, is English nothing more than an extra academic language?
Roadmapping Summary for the CLIL4ALL Erasmus+ project 2022-2025.
Findings and Recommendations based on the ROADMAPPING from the five partners:
Findings:
The findings below describe the history and current status of the partner universities. They are in no sense prescriptive but aim to serve as a general impression of the development of the partners’ CLIL narratives. In this text the foreign language is generally considered to be English. The term national language refers to the dominant language of any specific partner university. Of course, depending on the context these findings may be relevant to any combination of foreign and national languages.
Role of English
The ROADMAPPING reports from the five universities involved in the CLIL4ALL project indicate that a positive linguistic background for CLIL is provided when English is regarded alongside other languages as a useful tool for international communication and multicultural diversity. However, English should not be seen as marginalising other languages. It is interesting to note a movement diametrically opposed to multilingualism as exemplified in the French instance of “cultural exception”, which under French law limits the use of English in French companies. This reaction highlights the need to deal with all languages sensitively and respect a country’s language(s) so that no sense of linguistic imperialism is nurtured. This notwithstanding, it is generally recognised that graduates require international competences and knowledge of international languages is one such competence. As HAN shows, when regional/national employers prioritise these competences a climate is created where foreign- language programmes are regarded as desirable or even necessary.
The role of English is not limited to teaching but is also used in international projects dedicated to research and development and interwoven with publishing activities and the cultivation of networks between European/international partners. English is used widely across the partner universities in administrative functions to ensure accessibility for those students or guests who have no or little command of the national language. This is normally incorporated into the university recruiting policy i.e., the requirement of a certain level of language proficiency from applicants.
Partners are at different stages of drafting a language policy, which is generally recognised as creating the institutional framework for CLIL. At some partner universities there is a language policy drafted for the entire university, at Saint-Étienne and HAN this is delegated down to university institutes or schools. A language policy can have a variety of goals, one of which may be to make institutions fully bilingual. Often specific areas of the university are identified as starting points when an additional language is introduced: Updating the website, increasing content courses, interviewing teachers and researchers. Rarely are partner universities 100% bilingual for various reasons. Often, as in the case of HAN, English is regarded as an additional language.
Academic Discipline
The justification for a CLIL approach in higher education is that students acquire the specific vocabulary and ways of thinking specific to a particular genre and discipline, e.g., a management class teaches students to talk and think as managers do. However, mere exposure to content in a foreign language does not guarantee that the students will develop active academic proficiency in their spoken or written production. Hence, collaboration between a content teacher and a language specialist may serve to bridge the gap between everyday language fluency and academic/scientific proficiency in a specific discipline.
At universities of applied sciences, academic literacy is directly aligned with future employability/career options. In other words, the practical approach of these institutions means that the course content and requirements should simultaneously be preparing graduates to apply their knowledge and skills to the genuine demands of large companies. At the partner universities, bilingual education takes different forms, ranging from degree programmes taught exclusively in English to single modules taught in English. In practice, courses can also be taught in the national language and incorporate a foreign language or courses may be taught in both languages in the same programme with a focus on different aspects, e.g., theory or practice.
At Saint-Etienne the focus is on hard and soft skills: communication skills (looking for a job, communicating with international colleagues) and specific business or technical skills (understanding and writing technical documents). The CLIL4ALL project inspired content and language teachers to jointly work on a business vocabulary list which contains the most common terminology of the profession in English.
HAN highlights the development of practice-based competences, emphasising the direct application of theoretical knowledge in practice over linguistic accuracy and formalism. Additionally, there is a focus on integrality and on paying attention to the broader context of business issues within which language is acquired. In the Netherlands the national framework envisages that students are able to apply acquired knowledge and understanding in a professional manner appropriate to the discipline, solving problems in the field of the discipline.
Language Management
Language proficiency is a hotly-debated topic in the CLIL process. Many would agree that B2 or even C1 should be a set requirement for students to study in English. One issue associated with language certificates as part of admission requirements is how dependable these documents are as experience shows that many certificates do not, in fact, reflect the true level of students’ proficiency. If resources allow, it may be advisable to set up a system where applicants are tested individually to ascertain their true linguistic competence. This may also be an issue in a country such as France where those with their Baccalauréat are supposed to have English at B2 level but this standard may greatly vary from student to student.
There is little standardisation regarding language requirements for content teachers. Whilst a certain linguistic proficiency is necessary to teach in English, it is more important that the teachers are provided with support that is not merely linguistic but rather methodological/pedagogical and intercultural, especially in view of the heterogeneous, multicultural nature of international student groups. Many of those involved envisage support programmes extending to three years as content teachers develop their skills in adapting to a new teaching environment, both linguistically and methodologically. Within this process observation visits serve to provide constructive feedback to professors and provide an opportunity for self-reflection.
For those professors not intrinsically motivated to teach in a foreign language and who may also struggle with the challenges of teaching in a foreign language, a transparent and generous incentive programme may prove useful to increase and maintain motivation and commitment. Saint-Etienne pays content teachers double the first year of teaching in English and 1.5 the following years. Cordoba rewards content teachers who teach in English by recognising their teaching load plus 50%, i.e., 8 hours of teaching officially count as 12 hours.
As most professors focus on the content of their lectures and tend to neglect language, the concept of language awareness may focus content-teachers on how to use language to best transmit their specialist subject.
Almost as important for international students as the classroom experience is the general experience of interacting with the administration, whether that is the admissions’ office, examinations’ board, accommodation office, etc. Again, it not merely a question of demanding a certain level of English proficiency from the administrative staff, rather it means ensuring that such staff are equipped with the appropriate communication and intercultural skills to successfully interact with international students.
It is important that international students studying in a foreign language are required to learn the national language for their own benefit and to be able to fit into the local environment, as Karelia and others demonstrate. As some students intend to remain in the host country after their studies this requirement also serves the interests of the students themselves as well as the host institution and country.
Agents
Although many EMI or CLIL initiatives are started by individuals or small groups, they can ultimately only be successful if they are supported by university policy and national policy, supported in turn by EU policies. At TH Wildau the language policy is anchored in the university wide internationalisation strategy. At Karelia the language policy is incorporated into the university policy and overseen by the President of the university, rectors and managers as well as implemented by the staff of Student Services, International Affairs and Library Services. Student Welfare Officers dedicated to students’ well-being are an extra asset that can ensure the success of international students (and deal with questions/issues that otherwise professors may reluctantly have to deal with).
At Saint-Étienne the vice rector of Education and Internationalisation prioritised the topic of incoming students and the CLIL programme, asking all institutions to increase active international student recruitment as well as English programmes implementation. The increase in English-taught courses is also related to Erasmus+ programmes which have been conducted at the university and the networks which were established. Unfortunately, at Saint-Etienne these initiatives have not been anchored in the curriculum and have largely disappeared. Nevertheless, individual teachers have been able to keep some programmes going due to their persistent commitment.
Each IUT at Saint Etienne manages internationalisation and the language policy under the direction of a Head of International Office. He depends administratively on the UJM General International Office. The Vice-President together with the Managers of Education are jointly responsible for educational development and activities. An administrative staff supports the two International Offices. The dual service of International Relations and Languages is composed of 4 people, two teachers and two administrative staff, all of whom are involved in the CLIL programme.
At HAN those seeking to offer English modules, semesters or even larger parts of a programme have to apply for official permission. The management board of the school makes decisions based on feasibility, costs, workload and goals of the programme. These initiatives can be supported by the Language Centre of HAN.
Practices and Processes
At Saint Etienne and Roanne in France, English is taught in all the bachelor programmes and in almost all six semesters. The topic of integration runs throughout the CLIL process, encouraging programme directors to collaborate with each other as well as to professors from partner universities to participate in programmes.
CLIL often involves international students. However, many CLIL programmes involve professors and students who share a native language (not English) and chose to teach and study in a foreign language. This may make the process considerably easier as there are fewer cultural and linguistic challenges. It obviates the requirement for institutional support at higher levels.
Internationalisation and Glocalisation
CLIL is often motivated by a drive towards or response to internationalisation. The internationalisation process is not understood as simply one of attracting foreign students in order to create an international campus and fill gaps in the home university’s classrooms. It means that teachers need to cooperate with each other within the university and to incorporate teachers from outside the university.
One issue that can impede internationalisation for universities of applied sciences is shorter two-year programmes that render stays abroad more difficult. This problem has been solved by the creation of a one-year degree to enable students to pursue an international experience after their two-year degree. The new three-year technical bachelor degrees have opened up new possibilities for internationalisation, allowing students to spend one or two semesters abroad.
In the French case the focus of internationalisation has traditionally been North and Sub-Saharan Africa, as promoted by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Five years ago, this was refocused towards Europe and Asia with the development of English-taught study programmes. At the other end of the spectrum, the experience in the Netherlands shows that with incoming students exceeding 25%, the system is experiencing pressures. This has consequences for the quality of education and in 2023 the Minister of Education called for a pause in international student recruitment. Internationalisation needs to be considered within and adapt to the context of wider social and political developments.
A buddy programme operating at partner universities is one way to incorporate home students in the internationalisation process, providing them with an opportunity to improve their language and intercultural skills. Simultaneously, it offers international students the opportunity to informally become familiar with the host culture and institutions.
Recommendations: Q and A.
Does my institution have to draw up a language policy before introducing a CLIL programme?
A language policy is an instrument to align all the separate areas of a university to agree on the roles of different languages, even if there is in fact only one dominant language and other languages are used in specific areas of the university in a limited way. Alternatively, two (or more) languages are used everywhere by everyone for everything. In reality, many universities are somewhere between these two poles with many staff members feeling more comfortable communicating in their native language. It is recommended that key areas of the university landscape, particularly those with which international students interact, are able to conduct these interactions in a linguistically and culturally sensitive manner.
So, it is neither necessary nor realistic to expect a language policy to be in place before introducing foreign-language taught programmes. Indeed, introducing the CLIL model may initiate a process that eventually leads to the formulation of a language policy and in turn extend the CLIL initiative.
How do I know if my institution is ready to introduce a foreign-language taught module or programme?
If colleagues are involved in international exchanges and partnerships and your university is inviting international students to study in a foreign language and if there is already a mobility process underway, then your institution may be well placed to introduce a foreign-language taught programme. Another consideration is the general attitude toward this new language: Do most members of staff have a positive attitude towards the language, embracing it as a means of exploring internationalisation and diversity? Or do they resent the intrusion of this language, regarding it with suspicion and anxiety? If there is a core group of the former then introducing a foreign language taught programme should be successful.
What areas of the university need to be English-speaking to ensure the success of international students?
Remember that students need to interact with the international office, the admissions office and maybe the examinations board, among others, in the course of their studies. Therefore, it is important that at least one staff member in these departments is communicatively equipped to successfully interact with international students. The TH Wildau has an internationalisation officer in one of its faculties who supports international students and liaises with relevant stakeholders. Furthermore, relevant parts of the website and specific documents need to be available in English for international students to access the information they require, not simply the information related to the degree course.
Do teachers and students need to have a certain linguistic standard to participate in an English-language programme?
Generally, the partners require B2 or C1 levels for teachers and students. However, professors teaching in a foreign language rarely require linguistic assistance (communicative fluency), rather they may benefit from improving their intercultural skills to deal more effectively with international students and expanding their methodological skillset as they adapt to transmitting content in new formats. The mistake may be to see language proficiency as a requirement and something static, rather than viewing it as a starting point and an element of an unfolding process. It may be more useful to focus on supporting content teachers in the first years of teaching in a foreign language, concentrating on the specific academic discipline within which the individual professor operates and the interaction between professor and students.
Should content teachers be rewarded for teaching in a foreign language?
In some cases, content teachers are rewarded for teaching in a foreign language, either financially or in terms of recognition of extra teaching hours. It is important that the incentive system is generous, transparent and fair, otherwise it may prove to be counterproductive.
Do I have to introduce a module or course exclusively taught in the foreign language?
No. There are variations that include teaching one part of a module in one language (e.g., theory) and another part in another language (e.g., practice). Or the other way around. Start small and expand as the situation allows.
How can the university ensure that international students actually have the academic or linguistic proficiency that their documents or certificates claim?
Many universities find this a difficult issue. The academic level that some international universities claim may vary significantly from that of a European university. It is rare that the host university would have the resources to individually monitor the linguistic or academic standard that applicants possess when applying for a place. One solution may be to provide extra classes in the first semester(s) to bridge the gap between the programme’s requirement and the actual academic or linguistic level of some international students.
Can a university have too many international students?
If there is a continuous increase in international students it is important for the university to focus not just on teaching capacity but to consider broader issues such as accommodation and amenities that affect all students and may lead to some frustration or resentment of a perceived flood on non-national students causing the infrastructure to burst at the seams. The Dutch concept of ‘Internationalisation in balance’ encapsulates this approach.
What are the language skills that students and professors need?
In the higher education scenario the requirements that secondary schools demand of language learners are of little relevance. The key at third level education is linguistic proficiency as determined by the subject that is taught. This involves not only key vocabulary but ways of arguing and reasoning as may be exercised by professional in the field, be they chartered accountants or engineers.
